Psychology cheat sheet
Behaviour, cognition and research methods.
Operational definitions
Define how a construct will be observed or measured before testing a psychological claim.
“Attention” might be operationalised using performance on a specified task.
Experimental design
Experiments manipulate an independent variable and measure a dependent variable while controlling relevant alternatives.
Random assignment and random sampling solve different problems.
Learning
Classical conditioning concerns associations between stimuli. Operant conditioning concerns how consequences relate to behaviour.
Reinforcement increases a behaviour; punishment decreases it by definition.
Evidence limits
Association does not establish causation. Reliability concerns consistency; validity concerns whether an interpretation or measure is appropriate.
A consistent measure can repeatedly measure the wrong construct.
Classical and operant conditioning
Classical conditioning concerns learned associations between stimuli. Operant conditioning concerns how consequences influence behaviour. The distinction is about the learning relationship, not whether learning is intentional.
A cue predicting food and an action followed by a reward illustrate different learning arrangements.
Reinforcement and punishment
Reinforcement increases a behaviour’s future frequency; punishment decreases it. Positive and negative mean adding or removing a stimulus, rather than good and bad.
Removing an unpleasant stimulus can negatively reinforce a behaviour.
Memory processes
Encoding, storage and retrieval describe different parts of remembering. Memory is reconstructive and can be affected by context, expectations and later information.
A confident account is not automatically an accurate record of every detail.
Random sampling and assignment
Random sampling concerns who enters a study; random assignment concerns how participants enter conditions. They address representativeness and confounding in different ways.
A randomly assigned volunteer sample is not automatically representative of the population.
Worked example: group means
Scores of 4, 6 and 8 have mean 6. Scores of 0, 6 and 12 also have mean 6 but greater spread. Compare variability as well as averages before describing two groups as similar.
A shared mean does not imply identical distributions.
Common mistake: statistical significance proves importance
A significance test addresses a defined statistical question under assumptions. Effect size, uncertainty, design quality and practical meaning are separate considerations.
A small p-value is not the probability that the researcher’s hypothesis is true.
Check your understanding
Does “negative reinforcement” mean punishment?
No. It means that removing a stimulus increases the future frequency of a behaviour.
Curriculum connections
Australia
Biology / state and territory Psychology courses
learning and memory · research methods · interpreting statistical evidence
Senior courses and assessment requirements are set by state and territory authorities.
ACARA · Science ACARA · Senior secondary subjectsJapan
生物・倫理への接続
learning and memory · research methods · interpreting statistical evidence
MEXT course connections include optional and specialist subjects; the cards are original revision notes.
MEXT · 理科・理数 MEXT · 公民United States
AP Psychology / scientific inquiry
learning and memory · research methods · interpreting statistical evidence
Courses vary by state and school. Common Core, NGSS, CSTA, ACTFL and AP are frameworks or pathways, not one federal curriculum.
College Board · AP PsychologyUnited Kingdom
GCSE / A level Psychology — England
learning and memory · research methods · interpreting statistical evidence
England uses the GCSE/A level labels shown here. Scotland, Wales and Northern Ireland have their own curricula and qualifications.
DfE · GCSE subject content (England) DfE · AS and A level subject content (England)