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RubricMark

Practise the thinking. Keep the judgement.

N2 · Japanese grammar reference

Japanese grammar and sentence patterns from the app. Level labels follow the study catalogue; they are not an official exhaustive JLPT syllabus. Japanese examples have English explanations and translations. Identical practice repetitions share one entry.

Formal connectives & occasion

〜にあたって

Signals a deliberate starting point for an important action; attaches to nouns or dictionary-form verbs. Slightly ceremonial—fit for openings, launches, and project kickoffs.

新年度にあたってチームの目標を共有した。

At the start of the new fiscal year, we shared the team goals.

本番にあたって最終チェックリストを読み上げた。

Before going live, we read through the final checklist.
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〜にかけて

Spans a time or place range ending at a point (AからBにかけて), or praises expertise (〜にかけては). Context decides which reading applies.

今夜から明朝にかけて強い雨が予想される。

Heavy rain is expected from tonight through tomorrow morning.

週末にかけてキャンペーンを延長する。

We will extend the campaign through the weekend.
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〜に基づき

States that an action follows a rule, data set, or official standard; noun + に基づき/に基づいて. Stronger, more legalistic than を基に.

社内規定に基づき在宅勤務を承認した。

Remote work was approved in accordance with company rules.

実験データに基づき仮説を修正した。

We revised the hypothesis based on the experimental data.
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〜に応じて

Shows flexible adaptation to a changing condition or request; noun + に応じて. Useful for policies that scale with need, ability, or demand.

経験に応じて担当範囲を広げていく。

We expand responsibilities according to experience.

注文数に応じて仕入れ量を調整する。

We adjust purchasing volume in response to order counts.
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〜に際し

More compact formal variant of に際して for occasions; noun + に際し. Prefers written notices and speeches.

就任に際し抱負を述べた。

Upon inauguration, I stated my aspirations.

契約更新に際し条件を見直した。

At contract renewal, we reviewed the terms.
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〜に際して

Marks a formal occasion or milestone when something is about to start; noun or verb dictionary form precedes it. Common in speeches, notices, and business prose rather than casual chat.

開業に際して近隣の方々へご挨拶に伺いました。

On opening the shop, I paid courtesy visits to the neighbors.

留学に際して必要な書類を早めに揃えておいた。

Before studying abroad, I prepared the required documents early.
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〜にしたがって

Follows a rule, signal, or progressive change; noun/verb + にしたがって. Can mean “in accordance with” or “as X advances,” depending on context.

マニュアルにしたがって設定を変更した。

I changed the settings according to the manual.

議論が進むにしたがって論点がはっきりした。

The issue became clearer as the discussion progressed.
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〜に伴って

Marks accompanying effects of a change or event; noun + に伴って. Slightly more formal than とともに; common in news and reports.

都市化に伴って交通渋滞が深刻化した。

Traffic congestion worsened along with urbanization.

制度改正に伴って申請用紙も更新された。

Application forms were updated along with the rule change.
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〜につれて

Describes gradual correlated change; verb dictionary form or noun + につれて. Emphasizes a smooth continuum rather than a sudden switch.

練習を重ねるにつれてミスが減ってきた。

Mistakes decreased as practice accumulated.

暗くなるにつれて街灯が一つずつ点いた。

Streetlights came on one by one as it grew dark.
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〜にわたって

Covers a wide spatial, temporal, or topical range; noun + にわたって. Stresses breadth—“across the whole span”—in formal description.

三日間にわたって会議が続いた。

The conference continued across three days.

全国にわたって同じ品質を保証している。

The same quality is guaranteed nationwide.
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〜のもとに

Places action under authority, protection, or stated conditions; noun + のもとに. Formal; overlaps のもとで with a slightly more written feel.

専門家の指導のもとに実験を進めた。

We advanced the experiment under expert guidance.

公平の原則のもとに選考を行った。

Selection was conducted under the principle of fairness.
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〜とともに

Links simultaneous change or accompaniment: as A happens, B does too; noun or verb dictionary form + とともに. Written and speech-friendly for parallel developments.

気温の上昇とともに電力需要も増えた。

Power demand rose together with the temperature.

責任が重くなるとともに睡眠時間が減った。

As responsibility grew heavier, sleep hours shrank.
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〜を中心に

Places something at the geographic, thematic, or organizational core of activity; noun + を中心に. Describes clustering around a hub.

駅前を中心に商店街が広がっている。

The shopping street spreads out centered on the station plaza.

若手社員を中心にプロジェクトを編成した。

We formed the project mainly around younger staff.
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〜を踏まえて

Means proceeding while taking prior facts, feedback, or context into account; noun + を踏まえて. Softer than に基づき—implies consideration rather than strict rule-following.

前回の失敗を踏まえて手順を簡略化した。

In light of the previous failure, we simplified the steps.

規制の変更を踏まえて契約書を書き換えた。

We rewrote the contract reflecting the regulatory change.
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〜をはじめ

Lists a representative first item then implies others of the same group; AをはじめB. Formal listing—“starting with A, and so on.”

市長をはじめ多くの関係者が式に出席した。

Many stakeholders attended the ceremony, starting with the mayor.

米をはじめ主食の価格が上昇している。

Prices of staples are rising, beginning with rice.
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〜を契機に

Marks a more formal turning-point opportunity; noun + を契機に. Common in news about policy, careers, or historical shifts.

合併を契機にブランド名を刷新した。

Taking the merger as an opportunity, we refreshed the brand name.

法改正を契機に社内ルールを全面改定した。

We overhauled internal rules taking the legal revision as a cue.
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〜をきっかけに

Names a casual trigger that started a new habit, interest, or change; noun + をきっかけに. Everyday register; less grand than を契機に.

映画をきっかけにその作家を読み始めた。

A film prompted me to start reading that author.

転勤をきっかけに早起きの習慣がついた。

A job transfer became the trigger for an early-rising habit.
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〜をめぐって

Frames debate, conflict, or discussion centered on an issue; noun + をめぐって. News-style; the focus is contention, not physical circling.

新駅の建設をめぐって住民説明会が開かれた。

A residents’ briefing was held over the new station plan.

著作権をめぐって両社が対立している。

The two companies are at odds over copyright.
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〜を基に

Builds a conclusion, plan, or product using something as raw material or evidence; noun + を基に. Neutral-to-formal; often in reports and design talk.

顧客アンケートを基にメニューを見直した。

We revised the menu based on customer surveys.

現場のメモを基に議事録をまとめた。

I compiled the minutes based on notes from the site.
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〜を通して

Highlights learning or effect gained via an experience or intermediary; noun + を通して. Overlaps を通じて but often feels more experiential.

ボランティアを通して地域の課題を知った。

I learned about local issues through volunteering.

翻訳を通して原作の雰囲気を伝えた。

Through the translation, we conveyed the original’s atmosphere.
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〜を通じて

Indicates a channel, medium, or entire period through which something happens; noun + を通じて. Often media, networks, or “throughout the year.”

地域の掲示板を通じて情報が広がった。

Information spread through the community bulletin board.

一年を通じて観光客が訪れる町だ。

It is a town that tourists visit throughout the year.
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Logic, evaluation & extremes

〜あげく

After troublesome effort or waiting, a disappointing result follows; V-たあげく/Nのあげく. Strongly negative flavor.

三時間待たされたあげく、予約ミスだと言われた。

After being kept waiting three hours, I was told it was a booking error.

口論のあげく、両方とも席を立った。

After the quarrel, both parties left their seats.
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〜ばかりか

Adds an unexpected further point beyond an already notable one; XばかりかYも. Often positive stacking, sometimes negative escalation.

時間どおりばかりか資料まで完璧だった。

Not only on time—the materials were flawless too.

遅刻したばかりか宿題も忘れてきた。

Not only was he late; he also forgot the homework.
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〜であれ〜であれ

Means “whether A or B, the same holds”; AであれBであれ. Formal concessive listing similar to であろうと.

雨であれ雪であれ、当日は実施する。

Whether rain or snow, we will hold it on the day.

初心者であれ経験者であれ同じルールだ。

Whether beginner or veteran, the same rules apply.
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〜どころではない

In no condition for X because something else dominates; noun or plain + どころではない. Busy or crisis denial.

忙しくて花見どころではない。

I’m so busy that cherry-blossom viewing is out of the question.

体調が悪くて外出どころではない。

I feel too unwell for going out to be an option.
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〜どころか

Rejects an expected milder claim and replaces it with something stronger or opposite; XどころかY. Spoken and written for sharp contrast.

休憩どころか昼飯を食べる暇もなかった。

Far from a break, I had no time even to eat lunch.

賛成どころか猛反対の声が上がった。

Far from agreeing, fierce opposition rose.
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〜もさることながら

Acknowledges X, then elevates Y as even more noteworthy; XもさることながらY. Formal praise or balanced evaluation.

味もさることながら盛り付けも美しい。

The plating is beautiful, not to mention the taste.

価格もさることながら納期の速さが魅力だ。

Delivery speed is appealing, as is the price of course.
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〜にひきかえ

Sets a sharp contrast between two situations; XにひきかえY. Written comparison highlighting disparity.

兄の慎重さにひきかえ、弟は大胆すぎる。

In contrast to the older brother’s caution, the younger is too bold.

去年のにひきかえ、今年の売上は好調だ。

In contrast to last year, this year’s sales are strong.
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〜にほかならない

Asserts identity: X is nothing other than Y; noun + にほかならない. Formal evaluative punch for conclusions and essays.

成功は日々の積み重ねにほかならない。

Success is nothing other than daily accumulation.

その沈黙は不同意の表明にほかならなかった。

That silence was nothing but an expression of disagreement.
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〜に至るまで

Extends coverage down to the finest detail or farthest point; Xに至るまで. Emphasizes thoroughness or total reach.

細部に至るまでデザインが統一されている。

The design is unified down to the finest details.

退職に至るまでの経緯を説明した。

I explained the process leading up to the resignation.
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〜に至っては

Zooms in on an extreme or worst-case item within a set; Xに至っては. Often critical: “when it comes even to X…”

書類の誤字に至っては指摘しきれないほどだ。

As for typos in the documents, they are too many to point out.

彼に至っては会議にすら来なかった。

As for him, he didn’t even show up to the meeting.
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〜に決まっている

Speaker’s confident “of course it must be…”; plain form + に決まっている. Conversational certainty, sometimes slightly smug.

こんな雨なら試合は中止に決まっている。

With rain like this, the match is bound to be canceled.

彼が一番詳しいに決まっているよ。

He’s definitely the one who knows the most.
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〜のみならず

Formal “not only X but also Y”; noun/verb + のみならず. Prefers essays and announcements over casual speech (cf. だけでなく).

国内のみならず海外支店でも導入された。

It was introduced not only domestically but at overseas branches too.

価格のみならずサポート体制も評価された。

Not only price but also the support system was praised.
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〜た末に

After a long process of effort or worry, a final outcome arrives; V-た末に. Neutral-to-written; outcome may be good or bad.

何度も試作した末に完成形にたどり着いた。

After many prototypes, we finally reached the finished form.

家族と相談した末に転職を決めた。

After consulting the family, I decided to change jobs.
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〜といい〜といい

Lists two aspects that both support the same evaluation; AといいBといい. Often mildly critical or admiring of a package of traits.

色といい形といい、展示にぴったりだ。

In color and shape alike, it fits the exhibition perfectly.

態度といい言葉遣いといい、改善が必要だ。

Attitude and wording alike need improvement.
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〜うが〜うが

Classical-tinged “no matter whether A or B”; V-volitionalう/ようが. Strong indifference to alternatives.

周囲が何と言おうが、方針は変えない。

Whatever people around me say, I will not change the policy.

雨が降ろうが風が吹こうが出発する。

Whether it rains or the wind blows, we depart.
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〜はもとより

States that X is obvious, then adds Y as also true; XはもとよりY. Formal “needless to say X, and Y as well.”

英語はもとより、スペイン語の資料も読める。

She can read Spanish materials, not to mention English.

平日はもとより、休日も問い合わせが絶えない。

Inquiries never stop on holidays, let alone weekdays.
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〜はおろか

Emphasizes that even the easier/basic item fails, so the harder one is out of reach; XはおろかYも〜ない. Strong negative scaling.

車はおろか自転車すら持っていない。

I don’t even own a bicycle, let alone a car.

挨拶はおろか名前も覚えてもらえなかった。

They didn’t remember my name, let alone greet me.
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〜いかんにかかわらず

Regardless of how X turns out: noun + いかんにかかわらず. Stiff written irreversibility of policy.

結果のいかんにかかわらず報告する。

Report regardless of how the result turns out.

理由のいかんにかかわらず許可しない。

We will not permit it regardless of the reason.
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〜いかんでは

Depending on how X goes, Y may follow: noun + いかんでは. Conditional severity in formal notices.

態度いかんでは契約を打ち切る。

Depending on the attitude, we may terminate the contract.

内容いかんでは公開を見送る。

Depending on the content, we may postpone publication.
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N2 modality & compulsion

〜べからず

Classical prohibition found on signs and notices; verb dictionary form + べからず. Stiff, public-facing “must not.”

芝生に入るべからず、と札が立っている。

A sign reads: Do not enter the lawn.

関係者以外立ち入るべからず。

No entry except for authorized persons.
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〜べきではない

Normative advice against an action; verb dictionary form + べきではない. Softer than bans, stronger than mere preference.

個人情報を不用意に共有すべきではない。

One should not casually share personal information.

感情だけで判断すべきではないと思う。

I think one should not judge by emotion alone.
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〜ではあるまいし

Rejects treating someone as if they were category X; noun + ではあるまいし. Mild scolding—“you’re not a child, so…”

子供ではあるまいし、自分で片付けなさい。

You’re not a child—tidy up yourself.

初めてではあるまいし、そんなに慌てるな。

It’s not your first time, so don’t panic so much.
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一概に〜ない

Warns against blanket judgments; 一概に〜と言えない/できない. Prefers nuanced evaluation instead of slogans.

一概に伝統が正しいとは言えない。

One cannot flatly say that tradition is always right.

失敗を一概に本人の責任にはできない。

Failures cannot be attributed solely to the person involved.
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いかにも

Adverb stressing typicality or “exactly as expected”; いかにも〜らしい/そうだ. Can feel evaluative and sometimes slightly ironic.

いかにも新人らしいミスだった。

It was a mistake that was typically that of a newcomer.

いかにも忙しそうに書類を抱えて歩いていた。

He walked carrying papers, looking every bit as busy as he claimed.
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必ずしも〜ない

Denies automatic universality: not necessarily so; 必ずしも〜ない/わけではない. Careful academic or analytical tone.

高価な製品が必ずしも品質が高いとは限らない。

Expensive products are not necessarily high in quality.

経験者が必ずしも良い指導者ではない。

Experienced people are not necessarily good mentors.
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決して〜ない

Emphatic “never / by no means”; 決して plus a negative. Formal resolve or reassurance; avoid stacking with casual slang.

この秘密は決して口外しない。

I will never breathe a word of this secret.

決して安易な選択ではなかった。

It was by no means an easy choice.
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〜まいとする

Effort to avoid an action or unwanted outcome; verb dictionary or ない-stem + まいとする. Literary determination to refrain.

弱音を吐くまいとして笑顔を保った。

Trying not to complain, I kept a smile.

負けるまいとする姿勢が印象的だった。

The determination not to lose was impressive.
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まさに

Highlights exact timing, identity, or aptness—“precisely / just the thing”; まさに〜だ. Strong affirmation in both speech and writing.

まさにその瞬間に停電が起きた。

The blackout happened at precisely that moment.

彼の提案はまさに求めていた解決策だった。

His proposal was exactly the solution we had been seeking.
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〜ないではいられない

Emotional inability to refrain from an action; V-ないではいられない. Spontaneous feelings or reactions the speaker cannot suppress.

あの話を聞くと笑わないではいられない。

When I hear that story, I can’t help laughing.

友人の成功を喜ばないではいられなかった。

I couldn’t help rejoicing at my friend’s success.
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〜ないではおかない

Bound to produce an effect; V-ないではおかない. Twin of ずにはおかない with a freer speech feel.

その話は議論を呼ばないではおかない。

That topic is bound to spark debate.

公正な審査は信頼を生まないではおかない。

Fair screening is bound to create trust.
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〜ないことはない

Double negation softens ability or willingness: “it’s not that I can’t/won’t”; V-ないことはない. Hedging rather than an enthusiastic yes.

今すぐ行けないことはないが、準備に時間がいる。

It’s not that I can’t go right now, but I need time to prepare.

理解できないことはない。ただ説明が長い。

It’s not that I don’t understand—the explanation is just long.
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少しも〜ない

Absolute negation of degree: not even a little; 少しも paired with a negative predicate. Stronger denial than あまり〜ない.

その説明では少しも納得できない。

With that explanation, I am not convinced in the least.

彼は少しも焦った様子がなかった。

He showed not the slightest sign of panic.
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〜とは限らない

States that a common assumption may fail in some cases; plain form + とは限らない. Everyday logical caution.

早起きが得意な人が健康とは限らない。

Early risers are not necessarily healthy.

静かな人が消極的だとは限らない。

Quiet people are not necessarily passive.
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〜わけにはいかない

Social or moral constraint blocks an action even if technically possible; plain form + わけにはいかない. Soft refusal meaning “I can’t very well…”

同僚を一人残して帰るわけにはいかない。

I can’t very well leave a colleague behind and go home.

約束した以上、断るわけにはいかない。

Having promised, I can’t very well refuse.
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〜を禁じ得ない

Cannot suppress a feeling such as sympathy, anger, or admiration; noun + を禁じ得ない. Written emotional restraint breaking.

被災者への同情を禁じ得ない。

I cannot help feeling sympathy for the victims.

その大胆な発想には驚きを禁じ得なかった。

I could not suppress my surprise at that bold idea.
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よほど

Marks a considerable degree, often inferred from evidence; よほど〜だろう/らしい. Can soften into “rather” when weighing options.

よほど疲れていたのか、電車で寝てしまった。

He must have been quite tired—he fell asleep on the train.

怒るよりよほど説明した方が早い。

Explaining would be rather faster than getting angry.
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〜ざるを得ない

Expresses reluctant necessity: have no choice but to V; V-ない stem + ざるを得ない (する→せざるを得ない). Formal compulsion with little enthusiasm.

予算不足で計画を縮小せざるを得ない。

Due to budget shortfalls, we have no choice but to scale down the plan.

証拠を前にして認めざるを得なかった。

Faced with the evidence, I had no choice but to admit it.
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〜ずにはいられない

Same “cannot help but” meaning in a more written register; V-ずにはいられない. Prefers essays and reflective prose over chat.

被害の写真を見ると涙せずにはいられない。

Seeing the damage photos, I cannot help shedding tears.

不公平な扱いには抗議せずにはいられない。

I cannot help protesting unfair treatment.
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〜ずにはおかない

Predicts an unavoidable effect on someone or something; V-ずにはおかない. Formal “is bound to cause…” wording.

その映画は見る者を感動させずにはおかない。

That film is bound to move anyone who watches it.

不正は組織の信頼を損なわずにはおかない。

Wrongdoing is bound to damage the organization’s trust.
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Contrast & concession

〜くせに

Critical “even though”; plain form + くせに. Accusatory tone—the speaker finds the contrast hypocritical or unfair.

知っているくせに教えてくれない。

Even though he knows, he won’t tell me.

初心者のくせに態度だけは一人前だ。

For a beginner, his attitude alone is oddly self-assured.
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〜ものだから

Gives a personal reason that can sound like an excuse; plain form + ものだから. Softens responsibility for an outcome.

道が混んでいたものだから到着が遅れた。

I arrived late because the roads were congested.

初めてのものだから緊張してしまった。

Because it was my first time, I got nervous.
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〜ものか

Emphatic refusal or denial; plain form + ものか/もんか. Strong spoken resolve meaning “as if I would!”

こんな条件で契約するものか。

As if I’d sign a contract on these terms!

二度と騙されるものかと思った。

I thought, never again will I be fooled.
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〜ものの

Concedes a fact then undercuts the expected follow-through; plain form + ものの. Written “although…, (but)…”.

申し込んだものの、当日は行けなくなった。

Although I applied, I became unable to go on the day.

説明は受けたものの、まだ腹落ちしない。

I received an explanation, yet it still doesn’t sit right.
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〜ながらも

Concedes a conflicting state while the main clause proceeds; ます-stem, い-adjective, or noun + ながらも. Softer than くせに.

反対されながらも研究を続けた。

Even while being opposed, I continued the research.

狭いながらも快適な部屋に住んでいる。

I live in a room that is comfortable though small.
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〜ながらに

Describes manner while remaining in a state; limited fixed set such as 涙ながらに or 生まれながらに. Distinct from ながらも.

涙ながらにこれまでの経緯を語った。

In tears, she recounted what had happened so far.

生まれながらに音感が優れている。

She has an excellent sense of pitch from birth.
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〜にかかわらず

Regardless of a condition or difference; noun or question-word phrase + にかかわらず. Common in policy and schedule wording.

天候にかかわらず試合は予定どおり行う。

The match will be held as scheduled regardless of weather.

経験の有無にかかわらず応募できる。

You can apply regardless of whether you have experience.
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〜にしても

Concedes a point then criticizes the degree or manner; plain form or noun + にしても. “Even granting X, still…”

冗談にしても言い方がきつい。

Even as a joke, the wording is harsh.

忙しいにしても返信ぐらいはできるだろう。

Even if busy, one could at least reply.
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〜にして

Highlights a stage, status, or surprising subject; noun + にして. Can mean “at the age/stage of” or “even for someone like X.”

三十歳にして初めて海外に住んだ。

At thirty, I lived abroad for the first time.

名人にしてなお練習を欠かさない。

Even as a master, he never skips practice.
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〜たが最後

Once V happens, an irreversible chain follows; V-たが最後. Prefers negative or hard-to-stop outcomes afterward.

その話題に触れたが最後、議論が止まらない。

Once that topic is touched, the debate never stops.

寝てしまったが最後、起こすのに苦労する。

Once he falls asleep, waking him is a struggle.
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〜たら最後

Same irreversible “once…” idea as たが最後, formed with conditional たら. Stresses that there is no going back.

言い出したら最後、誰も止められない。

Once she starts talking, nobody can stop her.

習慣になったら最後、簡単にはやめられない。

Once it becomes a habit, you can’t quit easily.
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〜とあれば

If it is for that purpose or person, the speaker will go far; Xとあれば. Conditional dedication rather than bare if-then.

子供の将来とあれば多少の出費は惜しまない。

If it is for the children’s future, I won’t begrudge some expense.

緊急とあれば夜間でも対応します。

If it is an emergency, we will respond even at night.
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〜とあって

Because the situation is uniquely X, a natural result follows; noun or plain clause + とあって. Written cause with occasion flavor.

最終日とあって会場はかなり混雑していた。

Being the final day, the venue was quite crowded.

無料体験とあって予約がすぐに埋まった。

Because it was a free trial, bookings filled instantly.
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〜ときたら

Introduces a topic the speaker finds problematic or exasperating; noun + ときたら. Complaining “when it comes to X…”

最近の電車ときたら遅延ばかりだ。

When it comes to recent trains, it’s nothing but delays.

うちの猫ときたら昼も夜も寝ている。

When it comes to our cat, it sleeps day and night.
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〜とはいえ

Concedes X yet asserts a contrasting point; plain or noun + とはいえ. Written even-so / nevertheless.

子供とはいえルールは守ってほしい。

Even so, children should keep the rules.

初めてとはいえ準備不足は否めない。

Even granting it was the first time, poor prep is undeniable.
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〜つつも

Formal “even as / while knowing”; ます-stem + つつも. Often pairs with verbs of knowing, feeling, or regretting.

危険だと知りつつも現場へ向かった。

Even knowing it was dangerous, I headed to the site.

感謝しつつも率直な意見を述べた。

Even as I felt grateful, I stated my frank opinion.
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〜ようものなら

Warns that if someone dared to V, a severe consequence would follow; volitional + ものなら. Hypothetical threat framing.

ここで失敗しようものならやり直しだ。

If we were to fail here, we’d have to start over.

彼に文句を言おうものなら即座に反論される。

If you dare complain to him, you’ll get an immediate retort.
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Immediate sequence & aspect

〜が早いか

Second action fires the instant the first completes; dictionary or past form + が早いか. Written narrative of abrupt sequence.

帰宅するが早いか鞄を放り投げた。

The moment he got home, he tossed his bag aside.

ベルが鳴るが早いか生徒たちが立ち上がった。

As soon as the bell rang, the students stood up.
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〜がてら

Takes the chance to do a secondary action while doing the main one; noun or ます-stem + がてら. Casual errand stacking.

買い物がてら図書館に寄った。

While out shopping, I dropped by the library.

運動がてら駅まで歩いた。

I walked to the station partly for exercise.
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〜かと思うと

No sooner does one state appear than another follows; plain + かと思うと. Rapid alternation or surprise chaining.

泣いたかと思うと今度は笑い出した。

No sooner had she cried than she burst out laughing.

着いたかと思うとすぐ出発の合図だ。

Just when we arrived, the departure signal came.
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〜かたがた

One action doubles as another polite purpose; noun + かたがた. Formal “while also…” for visits, thanks, and reports.

近況報告かたがたお礼に伺いました。

I came to give thanks, and also to report recent news.

散歩かたがた郵便局へ寄った。

I stopped by the post office while out for a walk.
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〜ことなく

Does Y without doing X at all; dictionary form + ことなく. Formal “without …ing,” smoother than casual ないで.

休憩することなく作業を続けた。

We continued working without taking a break.

文句を言うことなく役割を引き受けた。

He took on the role without complaining.
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〜なり

As soon as V, often with an unexpected next action; dictionary form + なり. Narrative immediacy; a separate “either-or” reading also exists.

部屋に入るなり窓を全開にした。

As soon as I entered the room, I opened all the windows.

結果を見るなり表情が曇った。

The moment he saw the result, his expression clouded.
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〜次第だ

Will do Y as soon as X is ready; ます-stem + 次第だ. Business-like promise of immediate follow-through.

確認でき次第ご連絡します。

I will contact you as soon as I can confirm.

到着次第会議を始めましょう。

Let’s start the meeting as soon as they arrive.
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〜次第で

Outcome depends on a variable factor; noun + 次第で. Contingent results phrased as “depending on X…”

努力次第で結果は大きく変わる。

Results change greatly depending on effort.

天候次第で会場を屋内に移す。

Depending on the weather, we will move the venue indoors.
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〜そばから

As soon as one action finishes, the opposite recurs; dictionary or past + そばから. Frustration at endless repetition.

教わるそばから忘れてしまう。

I forget things as soon as I am taught them.

片付けたそばから子供がまた散らかす。

As soon as I tidy up, the kids mess it up again.
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〜た途端

The very instant after V, something—often unwanted—occurs; V-た途端. Works in both spoken and written immediacy.

スイッチを入れた途端、機械が止まった。

The instant I flipped the switch, the machine stopped.

立ち上がった途端にめまいがした。

The moment I stood up, I felt dizzy.
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〜て初めて

Only after experiencing V does the speaker understand or achieve something; V-て初めて. Insight that arrives after the fact.

一人暮らしをして初めて家事の大変さがわかった。

Only after living alone did I grasp how hard housework is.

失敗して初めて準備の大切さに気づいた。

Only after failing did I notice the importance of preparation.
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〜と思うと

Just when the speaker thinks X, Y happens—often contrary; plain clause + と思うと. Surprise at quick turnabouts.

終わったと思うと次の依頼が届いた。

Just when I thought it was over, the next request arrived.

晴れたと思うとまた雲が出てきた。

Just when I thought it had cleared, clouds returned.
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〜ついでに

Does something extra while already doing something else; plain clause or nounの + ついでに. Everyday efficiency nuance.

駅に行くついでに弁当を買ってきた。

While going to the station, I bought a bento.

印刷のついでに裏紙も処分した。

While printing, I also disposed of the scrap paper.
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〜を経て

After passing through stages, places, or processes; noun + を経て. Formal narrative of intermediate steps toward a result.

三次面接を経て内定が出た。

After going through three interview rounds, I received an offer.

多くの議論を経て方針が固まった。

After much discussion, the policy solidified.
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〜や否や

Literary “no sooner… than…” sequencing; dictionary form + や否や. Dramatic written style rather than everyday chat.

通知を受け取るや否や会議室へ走った。

No sooner had I received the notice than I ran to the meeting room.

扉が開くや否や冷たい風が入ってきた。

The moment the door opened, a cold wind rushed in.
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Limits, scope & basis

〜きり

Limits to only that amount, or marks a state unchanged since V; noun or V-た + きり. Readings: “just…” or “ever since…”

二人きりで率直に話し合った。

Just the two of us talked frankly.

朝出かけたきり、夜まで戻らない。

He left in the morning and still hasn’t returned at night.
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〜っきり

Colloquial counterpart of きり stressing exclusivity or a one-off event; quantity or V-た + っきり. Casual spoken limit marker.

一度っきりのチャンスを逃したくない。

I don’t want to miss a one-time-only chance.

それっきり連絡が途絶えた。

There has been no contact ever since then.
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〜ことなしに

Without performing the verb action at all; dictionary form + ことなしに. Written “without …ing,” a bit more classical than ことなく.

努力することなしに上達は望めない。

Without making effort, improvement cannot be expected.

確認することなしに送信してはいけない。

You must not send without checking.
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〜もとに

Uses X as a base for building or proceeding; noun + をもとに(して). Close to を基に; common in creative and research talk.

実話をもとに脚本を書いた。

I wrote the script based on a true story.

アンケート結果をもとに改善案を出した。

We proposed improvements based on survey results.
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〜なしには

Without X, the following cannot hold; noun + なしには〜ない. Formal indispensability close in feel to なくしては.

地図なしにはこの山道は歩けない。

Without a map, you cannot walk this mountain path.

信任なしには改革は進まない。

Without trust, reform will not advance.
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〜に準じて

Treats something by analogy with a standard or model; noun + に準じて. Semi-formal “in line with / following.”

正社員に準じて待遇を整えた。

We arranged conditions in line with those for full-time staff.

国際基準に準じて検査を行う。

Inspections are performed in accordance with international standards.
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〜に向けて

Orients action toward a goal, deadline, or audience; noun + に向けて. Directional preparation, messaging, or targeting.

発売日に向けて宣伝を強化している。

We are intensifying publicity toward the release date.

若年層に向けて発信方法を変えた。

We changed how we communicate, targeting younger audiences.
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〜に即して

Acts in line with concrete reality, rules, or facts on the ground; noun + に即して. “In keeping with the actual…”

実態に即して計画を修正する。

We revise the plan in line with actual conditions.

規定に即して処分を決めた。

We decided the disciplinary action in accordance with the rules.
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〜のもとで

Performs an action under someone’s authority, protection, or set conditions; noun + のもとで. Close to のもとに.

新しい監督のもとでチームが生まれ変わった。

Under the new coach, the team was transformed.

厳格な管理のもとでデータが扱われる。

Data is handled under strict control.
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〜抜きで

Does something without including a usual element; noun + 抜きで/抜きに. Omitting a person, step, ingredient, or formality.

予備知識抜きで論文を読んだ。

I read the paper without prior background knowledge.

冗談抜きで本気の提案だ。

Jokes aside, this is a serious proposal.
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〜上で

After completing preparation X, then do Y; V-た/Nの + 上で. Also means “in the course of / regarding” in formal discussion of a topic.

内容を確認した上で署名してください。

Please sign after confirming the contents.

安全を確保した上で作業を再開する。

We resume work after ensuring safety.
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〜上に

Stacks an additional point on top of an already notable one; plain form + 上に. Additive emphasis: “on top of X, also Y.”

安い上に味も安定している。

It is inexpensive, and on top of that the taste is consistent.

遅刻した上に資料も忘れてきた。

He was late, and on top of that he forgot the materials.
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〜上は

Now that a commitment or fact stands, a duty follows; plain form + 上は. Formal “once / now that…, one must…”

引き受けた上は最後まで責任を持つ。

Now that I have taken it on, I will stay responsible to the end.

公表した上は撤回は難しい。

Once published, withdrawing it is difficult.
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〜を限りに

Marks a cutoff ending a practice; time noun + を限りに. Formal as-of / ending-with this point.

今月を限りにサービスを終了する。

We will end the service as of this month.

今日を限りに禁煙を始める。

As of today, I begin quitting smoking.
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〜をもって

Marks means, timing, or formal closure; noun + をもって. Written “by means of / as of”; also closes announcements.

本日をもって受付を終了します。

As of today, we close applications.

実績をもって能力を示してほしい。

I want you to demonstrate ability through results.
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〜をもってすれば

If one employs means X, Y becomes possible; noun + をもってすれば. Confidence that the method is sufficient.

現在の技術をもってすれば十分実現できる。

With current technology, it is fully achievable.

誠意をもってすれば誤解は解けるはずだ。

With sincerity, the misunderstanding should clear.
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〜を抜きにしては

Without X, Y would be impossible or incomplete; noun + を抜きにしては〜ない. Emphasizes that X is indispensable.

現場の声を抜きにしては改善できない。

Without frontline voices, improvement is impossible.

睡眠を抜きにしては集中が続かない。

Without sleep, concentration will not last.
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〜を受けて

Responds to a prior event, request, or decision; noun + を受けて. Formal “in response to / following upon.”

要望を受けて営業時間を延長した。

In response to requests, we extended business hours.

調査結果を受けて方針を見直す。

Following the survey results, we will review the policy.
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〜をめざして

Aiming toward a goal: noun + をめざして. Forward-looking effort; sports, careers, and project roadmaps.

優勝をめざして練習する。

We practice aiming for the championship.

独立をめざして貯金している。

I am saving money aiming for independence.
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〜にこたえて

In response to expectations or requests: noun + にこたえて. Positive answering of hopes; speeches and PR.

ファンの声援にこたえて得点した。

They scored in answer to the fans’ cheering.

市民の要望にこたえて制度を見直した。

We revised the system in response to citizens’ requests.
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〜をこめて

With X put into it (feeling/effort): noun + をこめて. Marks emotional or careful investment in an action.

感謝の気持ちをこめて手紙を書いた。

I wrote a letter with gratitude put into it.

願いをこめて歌った。

I sang with a wish put into it.
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〜を問わず

Regardless of category X: noun + を問わず. Formal openness across age, weather, experience, etc.

年齢を問わず参加できる。

Anyone can participate regardless of age.

天候を問わず配達する。

We deliver regardless of weather.
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Tendency, appearance & degree

〜あまり

So much of an emotion or state that a result follows; noun or plain clause + あまり. Causation from excess feeling.

心配するあまり夜も眠れなかった。

I worried so much that I couldn’t sleep at night.

驚きのあまり声が出なかった。

I was so surprised that no voice came out.
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〜ばかりに

Precisely because of X, an unwanted result happened; plain form + ばかりに. Regretful focus on that single cause.

正直に話したばかりに損をした。

Precisely because I spoke honestly, I lost out.

経験が浅いばかりに任せてくれない。

Just because my experience is thin, they won’t entrust me.
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〜だらけ

Covered with many undesirable things; noun + だらけ. Messy abundance meaning “full of…”—rarely complimentary.

机の上が書類だらけだ。

The desk is covered with papers.

ミスだらけの原稿を書き直した。

I rewrote the manuscript that was full of mistakes.
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〜がちだ

Tendency toward an undesirable or frequent state; ます-stem or noun + がちだ. “Tend to / be prone to,” often mildly negative.

冬は遅刻しがちだ。

In winter I tend to be late.

忙しい時期は連絡を忘れがちになる。

In busy periods I tend to forget to get in touch.
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〜気味だ

Slight feeling or mild degree of a condition; ます-stem or noun + 気味だ. Subjective “a bit …,” usually temporary.

最近疲れ気味で集中が続かない。

I’ve been a bit tired lately and can’t keep focusing.

風邪気味なので早めに帰る。

I’m coming down with a cold, so I’ll leave early.
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〜かのようだ

Likens a situation to something unreal or exaggerated; plain form + かのようだ. Figurative “as if / as though.”

全てを知っているかのように話す。

He talks as if he knows everything.

時間が止まったかのような静けさだった。

It was a stillness as if time had stopped.
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〜きらいがある

There is a tendency—often undesirable—toward X; plain form or nounの + きらいがある. Analytical written critique.

彼の説明は冗長になるきらいがある。

His explanations have a tendency to become wordy.

計画が楽観的すぎるきらいがある。

The plan tends to be overly optimistic.
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〜んばかり

Looks as if something is about to happen; V-ない stem + んばかり(だ/に). Literary, vivid appearance wording.

割れんばかりの拍手に包まれた。

We were wrapped in applause as if it would split the hall.

今にも泣かんばかりの表情だった。

Her expression looked as if she were about to cry.
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〜にたえない

Cannot bear X (disgust) or feel X deeply (gratitude); noun + にたえない. Polarity depends on the paired noun.

感謝の念にたえない。

I am filled with deep gratitude.

聞くにたえない流言が飛び交っている。

Unbearable rumors are flying around.
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〜にたる

Sufficient or worthy enough for X; noun + にたる. Formal evaluation of adequacy or merit (cf. に足る).

信頼にたる協力者を探している。

We are looking for collaborators worthy of trust.

話題に足る成果が出た。

Results worthy of discussion have appeared.
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〜に足る

Same “worthy / sufficient” sense as にたる with the 足る writing; noun + に足る. Formal appraisal of merit.

読むに足る記事だけを保存する。

I save only articles worth reading.

尊敬に足る人物だと感じた。

I felt he was a person worthy of respect.
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〜っぽい

Looks or feels like the named quality; noun or stem + っぽい. Colloquial “-ish,” sometimes lightly dismissive.

その言い訳は子供っぽい。

That excuse sounds childish.

今日は忘れっぽくて鍵を二度探した。

I was forgetful today and looked for my keys twice.
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〜らしい(典型)

Typical of the noun’s ideal image; noun + らしい. Truly befitting X, distinct from hearsay らしい.

春らしい陽気になってきた。

The weather has become springlike.

学生らしい質問で場が和んだ。

A student-like question eased the room.
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〜始末だ

Ends up in a deplorable result after a bad process; plain form + 始末だ. Carries strong speaker disapproval.

結局、自分で謝る始末だ。

In the end, it came to me apologizing myself.

借金を重ねた始末で相談に来た。

After piling up debts, he came for advice.
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〜ずじまい

An intended action never got done; V-ずじまいだ. Regret that something remained unfinished despite plans.

忙しくて礼状を出せずじまいだった。

I was busy and ended up never sending the thank-you note.

天候不良で登山はせずじまいだ。

Because of bad weather, we never did the climb.
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Cause chains & aftermath

〜あげくの果てに

After a long messy process, a final bad outcome arrives; V-た or Nの + あげくの果てに. Stronger than plain あげく.

話し合ったあげくの果てに決裂した。

After all the talks, it finally broke down.

探し回ったあげくの果てに足元にあった。

After searching everywhere, it was at my feet.
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〜ばこそ

Classical-tinged “precisely because”; conditional ば + こそ. Written emphasis on the enabling reason.

君を思えばこそ忠告する。

Precisely because I care about you, I advise you.

支えがあればこそ挑戦できる。

Precisely because there is support, one can take on challenges.
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〜だけあって

As expected from X’s reputation or quality, Y holds; plain form + だけあって. Positive living-up-to-name nuance.

評判だけあって席がすぐに埋まった。

True to its reputation, seats filled immediately.

訓練しただけあって対応が冷静だ。

As expected from the training, the response is calm.
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〜だけに

Precisely because X is true, the result or emotion is stronger; plain form + だけに. The premise amplifies what follows.

期待が大きかっただけに失望も大きかった。

Precisely because expectations were high, the disappointment was too.

プロだけに仕上がりが速い。

Being a pro, the finish is quick.
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〜からこそ

Emphasizes X as the very reason for Y; plain form + からこそ. “Precisely because…,” often resolute or warm.

信頼しているからこそ厳しく言う。

Precisely because I trust you, I speak sternly.

失敗したからこそ次の工夫が生まれた。

Precisely because we failed, the next idea was born.
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〜からといって

Just because X is true, it does not justify Y; plain + からといって. Blocks overgeneralized conclusions.

安いからといって品質を無視できない。

Just because it is cheap, we cannot ignore quality.

友人だからといって遠慮はしない。

Just because we are friends, I will not hold back.
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〜ことだから

Because it is typical of that person or situation, Y is expected; nounの + ことだから. Familiar predictive reason.

真面目な彼のことだから、きっと間に合わせる。

Knowing how earnest he is, he’ll surely make it in time.

忙しい時期のことだから返信が遅いのも無理はない。

It being a busy season, slow replies are understandable.
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〜につき

Formal reason on notices, or a per-unit rate; noun + につき. Causal につき on signs; also “per person/item.”

改装中につきしばらく休業します。

Closed for a while due to renovation.

一人につき二枚まで配布する。

We distribute up to two copies per person.
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〜により

More compact formal twin of によって for cause or means; noun + により. Prefers reports and announcements.

事故により電車が遅延している。

Trains are delayed due to an accident.

抽選により当選者を決定する。

Winners are decided by lottery.
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〜によって

Marks means, cause, or how things vary by agent/factor; noun + によって. Versatile written how/why/by-whom connector.

地域によって気候が大きく異なる。

Climate differs greatly depending on the region.

技術革新によって作業時間が短縮された。

Work time was shortened by technological innovation.
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〜おかげで

Positive result thanks to X; plain form or nounの + おかげで. Grateful causation, though ironic uses exist.

先輩の助言のおかげでミスを防げた。

Thanks to a senior’s advice, I avoided a mistake.

早起きしたおかげで席が確保できた。

Thanks to getting up early, I secured a seat.
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〜せいで

Blameful cause of a bad result; plain form or nounの + せいで. Assigns responsibility, often critically.

寝不足のせいで集中できない。

I can’t concentrate because of lack of sleep.

案内が不明瞭なせいで迷った。

I got lost because the directions were unclear.
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〜末に

After a noun-named process comes a conclusion; noun + の末に. Parallel to V-た末に for nominalized events.

長い議論の末に妥協案ができた。

After long debate, a compromise proposal emerged.

苦労の末に資格を取った。

After hardship, I obtained the qualification.
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〜と同時に

Two things coincide in time, or two aspects hold together; plain/noun + と同時に. “At the same time / as well as.”

開店と同時に客が入ってきた。

Customers came in at the same time the shop opened.

便利であると同時に注意も必要だ。

It is convenient and, at the same time, requires care.
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〜ゆえに

Literary causal connector meaning therefore / because of; noun or plain + ゆえに. Essay and formal prose register.

経験不足ゆえに慎重になった。

Because of inexperience, I became cautious.

天候不良ゆえに便が欠航した。

The flight was canceled because of bad weather.
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Emphasis, focus & listing

〜あっての

X exists only because Y supports it; YあってのX. Emphasizes dependency—“X is possible only with Y.”

健康あっての仕事だと思う。

I think work is possible only with health.

お客様あっての店だから丁寧に対応する。

The shop exists thanks to customers, so we serve carefully.
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〜だの〜だの

Lists items dismissively as chatter or complaints; XだのYだの. Spoken irritation at miscellaneous claims.

高いだの遠いだのと文句ばかりだ。

Complaints about expensive this and far that—nothing else.

忙しいだの体調不良だの理由は多い。

Reasons pile up—busy, feeling unwell, and so on.
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〜ですら

Raises the bar by saying even X (unexpected) is included; noun + ですら. Formal twin of さえ with stronger surprise.

専門家ですら判断に迷う問題だ。

It is a problem that even experts hesitate to judge.

挨拶ですらまともにできない日だった。

It was a day when I could not even manage a proper greeting.
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〜以上は

Duty after a standing fact; plain + 以上(は). Formal “since / now that…, one must…” parallel to からには.

約束した以上は守るしかない。

Since I promised, I have no choice but to keep it.

参加する以上は準備を怠らない。

As long as I’m participating, I won’t neglect preparation.
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〜からには

Now that one has committed to X, a fitting action follows; plain + からには. Duty that follows a premise.

始めるからには最後までやり切る。

Now that I’m starting, I’ll see it through.

引き受けたからには結果で応える。

Having accepted it, I’ll answer with results.
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〜までして

Goes as far as doing extreme X to achieve Y; nounまでして. Questions or stresses costly means for a goal.

借金までして開業する必要はない。

There is no need to go so far as borrowing to open a shop.

夜を徹してまで完成させた。

They went so far as to stay up all night to finish it.
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〜ないものか

Strong wish that something would happen; V-ないものか. Yearning “if only… / isn’t there some way…”

もっと静かにできないものか。

Can’t it be a bit quieter somehow?

解決策が見つからないものかと悩んだ。

I fretted, wishing a solution would somehow appear.
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〜さえ

Highlights the extreme minimal or unexpected item; noun or particle + さえ. “Even X,” or “if only” with ば.

名前さえ思い出せない。

I cannot even remember the name.

休息さえ取れば回復するはずだ。

If I can just get some rest, I should recover.
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〜すら

Even X is affected—often with negatives; noun + すら. Close to さえ, with a slightly more written feel.

挨拶すら交わせない関係になってしまった。

It became a relationship where we cannot even exchange greetings.

自分の番号すら覚えていなかった。

I didn’t even remember my own number.
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〜たるもの

States what befits a role or status; noun + たるもの. Formal “one who would be X ought to…”

指導者たるもの、率先して動くべきだ。

One who would be a leader should take the initiative.

社会人たるもの、約束は守るものだ。

As a working adult, one keeps promises.
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〜てまで

Stresses extreme means with a verb; V-てまで. “Even to the point of doing V…”—often critical of overreach.

健康を害してまで働くつもりはない。

I do not intend to work to the point of harming my health.

友人を犠牲にしてまで勝ちたくない。

I don’t want to win if it means sacrificing a friend.
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〜とばかりに

Acts as if declaring X without saying it; clause + とばかりに. Vivid manner “as much as to say…”

もう終わったとばかりに席を立った。

He stood up as if to say it was already over.

待ってましたとばかりに質問が飛んだ。

Questions flew as if people had been waiting for that.
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〜というものだ

Evaluates what something truly amounts to; plain + というものだ. Assertive “that’s what you call…”

お互い様というのが社会というものだ。

Give-and-take is what society is about.

一度失敗して学ぶというのが成長というものだ。

Learning after one failure is what growth means.
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〜というものではない

Denies that X is always the right measure; plain + というものではない. Softens absolute rules of thumb.

高いから良いというものではない。

Being expensive does not mean it is good.

速いだけで優秀というものではない。

Speed alone does not make someone excellent.
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〜ともあろう

Expresses disappointment that someone of status X did Y; Xともあろう者が. Critical “for someone like X to…”

教員ともあろう者が資料を紛失した。

For a teacher, of all people, to lose the materials…

一流企業ともあろうところが対応が遅い。

For a top-tier firm, their response is oddly slow.
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〜をはじめとする

Uses X as representative of a larger group modifying a noun; NをはじめとするN. Formal attributive listing.

市長をはじめとする代表団が訪れた。

A delegation headed by the mayor visited.

米をはじめとする穀物の価格が上がった。

Prices of grains, starting with rice, rose.
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〜やら〜やら

Mixes several unsettled items; XやらYやら. “What with A and B…” for emotional or chaotic mixes.

嬉しいやら恥ずかしいやらで顔が熱い。

What with being happy and embarrassed, my face is hot.

荷物やら書類やらで両手がふさがっている。

With bags and documents and all, both hands are full.
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Written/formal tone patterns

〜べく

In order to V, or as one ought to V; dictionary form + べく. Written purpose or duty retaining classical flavor in modern prose.

真相を明らかにするべく調査を始めた。

We began an investigation in order to clarify the truth.

期限に間に合わせるべく作業を分担した。

We divided the work so as to meet the deadline.
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〜かたわら

Does a main activity while also pursuing another; dictionary form or nounの + かたわら. Written dual-role lifestyle.

本業のかたわら小説を書いている。

Alongside a main job, I write novels.

研究するかたわら後進の指導も行う。

While researching, I also mentor juniors.
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〜まじき

Conduct unbecoming or that ought not occur; dictionary + まじき + noun. Formal moral disapproval in critiques and notices.

許すまじき行為として処分された。

It was disciplined as conduct that ought not be allowed.

公務員にあるまじき発言だった。

It was a remark unbecoming of a public servant.
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〜に先立ち

Before a formal event begins; noun + に先立ち. Prefatory timing for ceremonies, programs, and public notices.

式典に先立ち来賓を紹介した。

Prior to the ceremony, we introduced the guests.

公開に先立ち内部でリハーサルを行った。

Prior to the release, we held an internal rehearsal.
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〜に先立って

Same prior-to meaning as に先立ち with て continuity; noun + に先立って. Formal framing before an event starts.

発売に先立って試作品を展示する。

Prior to launch, we will exhibit prototypes.

交渉に先立って資料を共有した。

Prior to negotiations, we shared the materials.
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〜にしろ

Whether X or the alternative, the same holds; plain + にしろ. Casual-formal concession twin of にせよ.

行くにしろ行かないにしろ連絡がほしい。

Whether you go or not, I want contact.

冗談にしろ配慮が足りない。

Even as a joke, it lacks consideration.
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〜にはあたらない

Not worth treating as X / does not warrant X; noun + にはあたらない. Formal downplaying of overreaction.

そこまで非難するにはあたらない。

It does not warrant that much criticism.

驚くまでにはあたらない結果だった。

It was a result that need not surprise anyone.
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〜にわたり

Formal stem twin of にわたって for spanning a range; noun + にわたり. Preferred in reports and minutes.

二週間にわたり研修を実施した。

Training was conducted over two weeks.

多岐にわたり意見が寄せられた。

Opinions were submitted across many areas.
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〜にしては

Considering X, Y turns out unexpected; noun or plain + にしては. Evaluation measured against an expected standard.

初心者にしては仕上がりが丁寧だ。

For a beginner, the finish is careful.

価格にしては持ちがよい。

For the price, it lasts well.
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〜を余儀なくされる

Is forced into an unwanted situation; noun + を余儀なくされる. Formal passive necessity common in news writing.

天候悪化で延期を余儀なくされた。

Worsening weather forced a postponement.

赤字により縮小を余儀なくされている。

Losses are forcing a downsizing.
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〜を余儀なくさせる

Forces someone into an unwanted situation; noun + を余儀なくさせる. Formal causative framing of compulsion.

事故が運休を余儀なくさせた。

The accident forced a service suspension.

規制強化が方針転換を余儀なくさせた。

Tighter regulations forced a policy shift.
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Judgment & certainty

〜だろうに

Counterfactual regret or empathy toward another; plain + だろうに. Wistful would-have-but tone.

もう少し休めばよかっただろうに。

You should have rested a bit more.

知らせてくれれば助けただろうに。

If you’d told me, I would have helped.
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〜得ない

Impossibility of V in written style; stem + 得ない. States that something cannot possibly be done or believed.

到底信じ得ない話だった。

It was a story I could not possibly believe.

一人では到底成し遂げ得ない。

It cannot possibly be achieved alone.
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〜得る

Possibility that V can occur; verb stem + 得る/うる. Written potential often used for abstract events.

起こり得るリスクを洗い出した。

We listed risks that could occur.

それは十分理解し得ることだ。

That is something one can fully understand.
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〜はずがない

Speaker judges X impossible given prior knowledge; plain + はずがない. Expectation-based “there’s no way…”

彼が忘れるはずがない。

There’s no way he would forget.

この価格で赤字のはずがない。

At this price it can’t possibly be in the red.
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〜かねない

Risk that an undesirable action may occur; ます-stem + かねない. Cautionary warning that it might well happen.

放置すれば拡大しかねない。

If left alone, it might well spread.

誤解を招きかねない表現だ。

It is wording that could invite misunderstanding.
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〜かねる

Politely cannot or finds it hard to V; ます-stem + かねる. Business refusal softer than blunt できない.

即答はしかねます。

I cannot give an immediate answer.

その条件では応じかねる。

Under those conditions, we find it hard to agree.
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〜まい

Negative volition or negative conjecture; dictionary or ない-stem + まい. Literary won’t / probably not.

二度と頼むまいと心に決めた。

I resolved never to ask again.

彼は来まいと思っていた。

I thought he probably would not come.
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〜に違いない

Strong inference that X must be true; plain or noun + に違いない. Confident deduction drawn from evidence.

明かりが消えているから外出中に違いない。

The lights are off, so they must be out.

あの様子では合格に違いない。

From that look, they must have passed.
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〜に相違ない

Formal certainty that X is so; plain or noun + に相違ない. Stiffer documentary twin of に違いない.

これは彼の筆跡に相違ない。

This is without doubt his handwriting.

誤送が原因に相違ないと判断した。

We judged that a mis-shipment was certainly the cause.
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〜にすぎない

Downplays X as merely that and nothing more; plain or noun + にすぎない. Minimizing evaluative tone.

それは一例にすぎない。

That is nothing more than one example.

私は通行人にすぎなかった。

I was merely a passerby.
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〜とみえる

Judges from appearance that X seems so; plain + とみえる. Observational inference with a written feel.

彼は納得したとみえる。

He appears to have accepted it.

店は繁盛しているとみえる。

The shop seems to be thriving.
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〜わけがない

Emphatic impossibility; plain + わけがない. Often feels more emotional than はずがない in speech.

今から間に合うわけがない。

There’s no way we’ll make it from now.

素人にすぐできるわけがない。

There’s no way a novice can do it immediately.
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〜からすると

Judging from X / from X’s standpoint: noun + からすると. Inference frame; twin of からすれば.

経験からすると、準備不足だ。

Judging from experience, preparation is insufficient.

数字からすると成功している。

From the figures, it is succeeding.
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〜からすれば

From the standpoint of X: noun + からすれば. Evaluative angle; often contrasts perspectives.

消費者からすれば価格が高い。

From consumers’ standpoint, the price is high.

初心者からすれば説明が足りない。

From a beginner’s standpoint, the explanation is lacking.
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Discourse & topic framing

〜からいうと

Judging from a criterion or position; noun + からいうと. Analytical phrasing from the standpoint of X.

安全面からいうとこの案が無難だ。

From a safety standpoint, this plan is safer.

経験からいうと準備不足だ。

Speaking from experience, preparation is insufficient.
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〜からみると

Looking from a vantage point to evaluate; noun + からみると. Perspective used for judgment or contrast.

外側からみると簡単そうに見える。

Looking from the outside, it seems easy.

数字からみると改善は明らかだ。

Looking at the figures, improvement is clear.
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〜に限らず

Not limited to X but wider still; noun + に限らず. Inclusive expansion beyond a single category.

土日に限らず平日も混雑する。

It is crowded not only on weekends but also on weekdays.

若者に限らず幅広い層が使う。

Not only young people but a wide range of ages use it.
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〜に限って

Ironically, of all times or people, X is when trouble hits; noun + に限って. Frustrated exception focus.

急いでいる時に限って電車が遅れる。

Only when I’m in a hurry does the train get delayed.

彼に限って嘘はつかないと思っていた。

I thought he, of all people, would not lie.
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〜にかけては

In the domain of X, someone especially excels; noun + にかけては. Praise of specialized strength.

記憶力にかけては誰にも負けない。

When it comes to memory, I yield to no one.

料理にかけては姉が一番だ。

When it comes to cooking, my sister is the best.
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〜にしたら

From that person’s standpoint; noun + にしたら. Empathetic perspective-taking when evaluating a situation.

子供にしたら長時間の移動は辛い。

For a child, a long trip is hard.

新人にしたら質問しづらい雰囲気だ。

For a newcomer, it is an atmosphere hard to ask in.
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〜にしてみれば

From X’s point of view when evaluating Y; noun + にしてみれば. Analytical empathy or contrast of views.

利用者にしてみれば案内が不足している。

From the users’ perspective, guidance is lacking.

作り手にしてみれば妥協できない点だ。

For the maker, it is a point they cannot compromise.
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〜につけ

On every such occasion, or whether A or B; plain + につけ. Written whenever / what-with connective.

見るにつけ聞くにつけ心配になる。

Whether seeing or hearing of it, I grow worried.

成功するにつけ失敗するにつけ報告がいる。

Whether we succeed or fail, a report is needed.
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〜というと

Associates a word with a typical image, sometimes then corrected; noun + というと. Topic association cue.

日本料理というと寿司を思い浮かべる人は多い。

When one says Japanese food, many picture sushi.

休暇というと旅行ばかりではない。

Holidays are not only about travel.
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〜となると

When it comes to the concrete case X, attitude changes; plain or noun + となると. Narrows the topic.

実演となると緊張する。

When it comes to a live demo, I get nervous.

費用となると急に慎重になる。

When it comes to cost, people suddenly grow cautious.
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〜となったら

Case-focus with a stronger hypothetical edge; plain or noun + となったら. If it comes down to X…

出張となったら早めに手配する。

If it turns into a business trip, I’ll arrange early.

最終便となったら走るしかない。

If it’s the last train, we’ll have to run.
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〜といえば

Brings up a related topic from a keyword; noun + といえば. Classic topic-shift meaning speaking of…

秋といえば紅葉の便りが楽しみだ。

Speaking of autumn, I look forward to foliage news.

休憩といえば、茶葉を替えよう。

Speaking of breaks, let’s change the tea leaves.
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〜といったら

Emotional focus when mentioning X; noun + といったら. Speaking of X with a strong evaluative punch.

その混雑といったらひどいものだった。

Speaking of the crowding—it was awful.

味といったら忘れられない。

As for the taste, I can’t forget it.
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〜ともなると

When reaching status or stage X, expected behaviors follow; noun + ともなると. Social-expectation frame.

責任者ともなると発言に気を配る。

Once one is the person in charge, one watches one’s words.

春ともなると観光客が増える。

When it becomes spring, tourists increase.
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〜はさておき

Puts X on hold to turn to Y; noun + はさておき. Slightly more written cousin of はともかく.

冗談はさておき本題に入ろう。

Jokes aside, let’s get to the main point.

過去はさておき今後の策を練る。

Leaving the past aside, we plan the next steps.
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〜はともかく

Sets X aside to discuss Y instead; noun + はともかく. Discourse management: leaving X aside for now.

値段はともかく味は確かだ。

Price aside, the taste is reliable.

勝敗はともかく全力は出した。

Win or lose aside, we gave our all.
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