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RubricMark

Practise the thinking. Keep the judgement.

N3 · Japanese grammar reference

Japanese grammar and sentence patterns from the app. Level labels follow the study catalogue; they are not an official exhaustive JLPT syllabus. Japanese examples have English explanations and translations. Identical practice repetitions share one entry.

Modality — expectation, advice, necessity

〜はずだ

Marks a confident expectation based on evidence or prior knowledge—not a soft guess. Attach to plain forms; register is neutral and common when you reason aloud in speech or writing.

会議は三時に終わるはずだ。

The meeting should finish at three.

あの店はもう閉まっているはずです。

That shop should already be closed.
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〜はずがない

Strong denial of possibility: given what you know, the situation simply cannot be true. Stronger and more logical than a casual negative guess; often rebuts an implied claim.

彼が約束を忘れるはずがない。

There is no way he would forget a promise.

この値段で本物のはずがない。

At this price it cannot possibly be genuine.
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〜べきだ

States a moral or practical ought: dictionary-form verb plus べきだ. Firmer than softened advice; can sound lecturing if aimed at the listener, so tone matters in conversation.

提出前に内容を確認するべきだ。

You ought to check the content before submitting.

公共の場では静かにすべきです。

One should keep quiet in public places.
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〜べきではない

Negates obligation or propriety: something ought not be done. Dictionary form plus べきではない; written and spoken advice with a clear evaluative stance toward the action.

個人情報をネットに載せるべきではない。

You should not post personal information online.

他人の失敗を笑うべきではない。

One ought not laugh at others' mistakes.
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〜わけだ

Draws a logical conclusion—so that explains it—from a premise just given. Plain form plus わけだ; often follows a reason clause and feels like clicking a puzzle piece into place.

毎日練習しているから、上達が早いわけだ。

They practice daily, so that explains the fast progress.

夜勤だったわけだ、朝は眠そうだね。

Ah, so that is why—they were on night shift and look sleepy.
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〜わけではない

Soft denial: it is not the case that, or not entirely. Softens absolute statements; useful when you reject a misreading without sounding blunt. Plain form plus わけではない.

行きたくないわけではないが、時間が足りない。

It is not that I do not want to go; I just lack time.

甘いものが嫌いなわけではない。

It is not that I dislike sweets.
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〜わけがない

Emphatic there is no reason or no way that—denies logical grounds for a claim. Overlaps はずがない but stresses absurdity or impossibility of the premise itself.

一日で覚えられるわけがない。

There is no way you can memorize it in one day.

無料でそんなサービスがあるわけがない。

There is no way such a service would be free.
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〜わけにはいかない

Social or moral constraint: you cannot very well do X even if you want to. Plain form plus わけにはいかない; highlights duty, face, or rules rather than physical inability.

困っている友人を放っておくわけにはいかない。

I cannot very well leave a friend in trouble alone.

機密を外部に話すわけにはいかない。

I cannot very well disclose confidential matters outside.
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〜ざるを得ない

Formal have no choice but to: classical ざる plus を得ない after the verb stem (する becomes せざる). Written or serious tone for reluctant necessity under pressure.

予算不足で計画を見直さざるを得ない。

Due to budget shortfalls we have no choice but to revise the plan.

証拠がある以上、認めざるを得ない。

Given the evidence, I have no choice but to admit it.
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〜ねばならない

Formal must or have to: ない-stem plus ねばならない (する becomes せねば). Literary or stiff register compared with なければならない; common in essays and notices.

期限までに書類を提出せねばならない。

Documents must be submitted by the deadline.

安全基準を満たさねばならない。

Safety standards must be met.
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〜まい

Two main readings: probably will not as conjecture, and I shall not as negative resolve. Dictionary form plus まい; terse and somewhat formal or literary in modern use.

二度とあんな失敗はすまい。

I will not make that kind of mistake again.

彼は来まいと思っていた。

I thought he probably would not come.
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〜ことだ

Gives general advice: the thing to do is. Plain form plus ことだ; sounds like seasoned counsel rather than a hard rule. Distinct from nominalizing こと or hearsay ということだ.

疲れているときは早く寝ることだ。

When you are tired, the thing to do is go to bed early.

わからない語はすぐ調べることだ。

When you do not know a word, you should look it up right away.
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〜ものだ

Broad pattern: general truths, nostalgic used to, or emotive how remarkable. Plain form plus ものだ; nuance depends on tense and intonation—learn readings from context carefully.

人の話は最後まで聞くものだ。

One should listen to others through to the end.

子供のころはよく川で遊んだものだ。

I used to play a lot by the river as a child.
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〜つもりだ

Speaker intention or mistaken belief about a state: I intend to, or I thought I had. Verb plain plus つもりだ; past つもりだった often marks a plan that did not hold.

来月、資格試験を受けるつもりだ。

I intend to take the certification exam next month.

説明したつもりだが、伝わっていなかった。

I thought I had explained, but it had not gotten across.
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〜予定だ

Scheduled plan, often more external or fixed than personal つもり. Noun or verb plain plus 予定だ; frequent in calendars, travel, and workplace coordination.

金曜の午後に打ち合わせの予定だ。

We are scheduled to meet Friday afternoon.

来週大阪へ出張する予定です。

I am scheduled to go to Osaka on business next week.
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〜おそれがある

Warns of a feared risk: there is a danger that. Plain form or noun plus の plus おそれがある; formal, common in news, medicine, and safety notices.

大雨で川が氾濫するおそれがある。

There is a risk the river may flood in the heavy rain.

このままでは納期に間に合わないおそれがある。

At this rate there is a danger we will not meet the deadline.
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〜かねない

Negative potential of かねる flipped: might well undesirably. Stem plus かねない; flags a worrying possibility the speaker wants listeners to take seriously.

無理をすると病気になりかねない。

If you overdo it, you might well get sick.

誤解を招きかねない表現だ。

That wording might well invite misunderstanding.
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〜かねる

Polite refusal or inability: hard to, or cannot bring oneself to. Stem plus かねる; business keigo staple such as わかりかねます. Softer than a blunt cannot.

そのご要望には応じかねます。

I am afraid we cannot accommodate that request.

私一人では判断しかねる。

I find it hard to decide on my own.
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〜がたい

Emotionally or ethically hard to do—stronger and more formal than にくい. Stem plus がたい; frequent with believe, forgive, understand, and forget.

彼の突然の退職は信じがたい。

His sudden resignation is hard to believe.

あの光景は忘れがたい。

That scene is hard to forget.
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〜得る・〜得ない

Potential in formal register: stem plus 得る or うる for can occur, 得ない for cannot. Common in writing for abstract possibility such as あり得る.

そのような事故も起こり得る。

An accident like that can also occur.

彼が裏切ることはあり得ない。

It is impossible that he would betray us.
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〜しかない

Leaves only one option: have no choice but. Plain verb or noun plus しかない; resigned necessity without the classical flavor of ざるを得ない.

電車が止まったので歩くしかない。

The trains stopped, so we have no choice but to walk.

説明するしかないだろう。

We will just have to explain, I suppose.
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〜に相違ない

There is no doubt that…: plain/noun + に相違ない. Formal certainty close to に違いない; essays and reports.

彼が犯人に相違ない。

There is no doubt he is the culprit.

この数字は誤りに相違ない。

These figures are certainly wrong.
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Conditionals & hypotheticals

〜場合

Frames a contingency: in the case that. Plain clause or noun plus の plus 場合; standard in instructions, contracts, and polite hypotheticals—cooler than casual たら.

遅れる場合は必ず連絡してください。

If you will be late, please be sure to contact us.

雨の場合、試合は中止になります。

In case of rain, the match will be cancelled.
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〜とすると

Hypothetical assumption for reasoning: if we suppose that. Plain form plus とすると; useful for calculating consequences without claiming the premise is true.

全員が参加するとすると、席は足りるか。

If we assume everyone joins, will seats be enough?

予算が半分だとすると、計画を縮小するしかない。

Supposing the budget is halved, we would have to scale the plan down.
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〜ものなら

Counterfactual desire: if one could but likely cannot. Potential plus ものなら; often pairs with たい and conveys wistfulness or a challenging dare.

戻れるものなら十年前に戻りたい。

If I could go back, I would return to ten years ago.

やれるものならやってみろ。

If you think you can, go ahead and try.
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〜さえ〜ば

Minimal condition: if only. Noun plus さえ plus a ば or たら conditional; focuses on the single sufficient requirement for the result.

時間さえあれば完成できる。

If only I had time, I could finish it.

本人さえ承知すれば問題ない。

As long as the person themself agrees, there is no problem.
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〜こそ

Emphatic precisely, or it is X that: replaces bare focus particles to highlight contrastive importance. だからこそ is a frequent and useful collocation.

今年こそ目標を達成したい。

This year especially, I want to reach the goal.

忙しいからこそ計画が必要だ。

Precisely because we are busy, a plan is necessary.
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〜からには

Commitment after a premise: now that or since I have committed. Plain form plus からには; the following clause usually states resolve or obligation.

引き受けたからには最後までやる。

Now that I have taken it on, I will see it through.

日本に来たからには方言も聞いてみたい。

Since I have come to Japan, I want to hear dialects too.
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〜以上は

Similar to からには: as long as or given that. Plain form plus 以上は; slightly more formal; the consequent often expresses duty or an inevitable stance.

学生である以上は規則を守るべきだ。

As long as you are a student, you should follow the rules.

約束した以上、守れないのは困る。

Given that we promised, failing to keep it is a problem.
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〜ないまでも

Concessive scale: even if not fully X, at least. Nai-form plus までも; lowers the bar while still requesting a meaningful alternative outcome.

完璧でないまでも、提出は間に合わせたい。

Even if it is not perfect, I want to make the deadline.

賛成しないまでも、反対はしないでほしい。

Even if you do not agree, please do not oppose it.
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〜としたら

Everyday hypothetical: if it were the case that. Plain plus としたら; softer and more conversational than とすると for imagining situations.

もし明日雨だとしたら、延期しよう。

If it turns out rainy tomorrow, let us postpone.

一人で行くとしたら不安だ。

If I were to go alone, I would feel uneasy.
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〜とすれば

Logical if we take X as given—slightly more analytical than としたら. Plain plus とすれば; common when deriving a conclusion from an assumption.

彼の話が正しいとすれば、記録が残っているはずだ。

If his story is correct, there should be a record.

費用が倍になるとすれば、別案を考える。

If costs double, we will consider another plan.
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〜ないことには

Negative prerequisite: unless, the next step will not. Nai-form plus ことには plus a negative result; stresses a blocking condition clearly.

実物を見ないことには決められない。

Unless I see the actual item, I cannot decide.

資金が集まらないことには始められない。

Unless funds are raised, we cannot start.
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〜限りでは

Scope limiter on knowledge: as far as is concerned. Plain or noun plus の plus 限りでは; hedges claims to the speaker's information range.

私の知る限りでは、変更はない。

As far as I know, there is no change.

調査した限りでは問題は見つかっていない。

As far as the investigation goes, no issues were found.
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〜ば〜ほど

Proportional conditional: the more, the more. Same adjective or verb appears in both ば and ほど clauses; vivid for gradual correlation.

練習すればするほど上達する。

The more you practice, the more you improve.

考えれば考えるほどわからなくなる。

The more I think, the less I understand.
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〜たら最後

Once X happens, an irreversible follow-through: once, that is it. Ta-form plus ら最後; dramatic warning about crossing a line.

この道に入ったら最後、引き返せない。

Once you enter this path, there is no turning back.

彼が話し出したら最後、止まらない。

Once he starts talking, he will not stop.
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〜となると

When the topic becomes X, a special consequence follows: when it comes to, or if it turns into. Noun or plain plus となると; shifts focus to a demanding case.

人前で話すとなると緊張する。

When it comes to speaking in front of people, I get nervous.

海外赴任となると準備が大変だ。

If it becomes an overseas posting, preparation is tough.
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〜ても

Concessive conditional: even if. Te-form plus も; N3 consolidates uses with question words such as 何を〜ても for no matter what.

雨が降っても試合は行う。

Even if it rains, the match will go ahead.

何を言っても彼は聞き入れない。

No matter what I say, he will not listen.
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〜なら

Topic-conditional: if it is X you are talking about. Noun or plain plus なら; often advises or contrasts based on the listener's premise.

安いパソコンならこの店がいい。

If it is an inexpensive PC you want, this shop is good.

行くなら早めに出発した方がいい。

If you are going, you had better leave early.
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〜にしろ

Whether X (or not): plain/noun + にしろ. Formal listing of alternatives before a shared conclusion; often paired.

行くにしろ行かないにしろ連絡して。

Whether you go or not, contact me.

賛成にしろ反対にしろ理由を述べる。

Whether for or against, state a reason.
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〜にせよ

Whether X: plain/noun + にせよ. Twin of にしろ with written flavor; same alternative-concession frame.

成功するにせよ失敗するにせよ学びがある。

Whether you succeed or fail, there is learning.

子供にせよ大人にせよ同じ規則だ。

Whether child or adult, the same rule applies.
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〜たところで

Even if one did X, (futile): ta-form + ところで. Downplays usefulness of the hypothetical action.

今さら謝ったところで信用は戻らない。

Even if you apologize now, trust will not return.

急いだところで間に合わない。

Even if we hurry, we will not make it.
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Cause, reason & result

〜せいだ

Blames an undesirable outcome on X: noun plus の or plain plus せいだ or せいで. Negative evaluation is built in—avoid for polite credit; pair with おかげ for positives.

寝不足のせいで集中できない。

I cannot concentrate because of lack of sleep.

彼のせいだと言い切るのは早い。

It is too soon to declare it is his fault.
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〜おかげだ

Credits a welcome result to X: thanks to. Noun plus の or plain plus おかげだ or おかげで; can be ironic if the result is bad, so tone decides sincerity.

チームのおかげで目標を達成できた。

Thanks to the team, we reached the goal.

詳しい地図のおかげで迷わず着いた。

Thanks to a detailed map, I arrived without getting lost.
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〜ばかりに

Unfortunate result from a single cause: precisely because something bad followed. Plain plus ばかりに; carries regret or blame denser than plain から.

一言多かったばかりに関係がこじれた。

Just because of one extra remark, the relationship got tangled.

信じたばかりに損をした。

Precisely because I trusted them, I took a loss.
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〜ばかりか

Additive escalation: not only but also. Plain or noun plus ばかりか; often stacks a stronger second item; near-synonym of ばかりでなく.

彼は遅刻したばかりか、資料も忘れた。

He was not only late but also forgot the materials.

騒音ばかりか振動にも悩まされている。

We are troubled not only by noise but by vibration too.
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〜だけでなく

Inclusive not only A but also B. Noun or plain plus だけでなく; everyday twin of more formal のみならず.

英語だけでなく中国語も勉強している。

I study not only English but also Chinese.

見た目だけでなく中身も大事だ。

Not only appearance but substance matters too.
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〜のみならず

Formal not only but also. Noun or plain plus のみならず; essay and news register; often pairs with も in the second clause.

国内のみならず海外でも評価が高い。

It is highly regarded not only domestically but also abroad.

大人のみならず子供にも人気がある。

It is popular not only with adults but with children too.
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〜結果

Marks outcome after a process: as a result of. Noun plus の or verb plain past plus 結果; neutral reporting link between a cause chain and consequence.

調査の結果、原因が判明した。

As a result of the investigation, the cause became clear.

何度も話し合った結果、合意に達した。

After talking many times, we reached agreement.
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〜によって (cause)

Indicates cause or agent in formal prose: due to or by. Noun plus によって; also means depending on—disambiguate via context and the following verb.

事故によって電車が止まった。

Trains stopped due to an accident.

努力によって差が生まれる。

Differences arise through effort.
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〜ことから

Evidential reason: from the fact that. Plain plus ことから; presents observed grounds leading to a conclusion—common in explanations and reports.

足跡があることから、誰か来たと考えられる。

From the fact there are footprints, someone likely came.

笑顔が多いことから、職場の雰囲気がいいとわかる。

From the many smiles, you can tell the workplace mood is good.
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〜あまり

Excess leading to a result: so much that. Noun plus の or plain plus あまり; often negative side effects from overdoing emotion or effort.

心配するあまり、夜も眠れなかった。

I worried so much I could not sleep at night.

完璧を求めるあまり、提出が遅れた。

In seeking perfection so much, the submission was late.
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〜につき

Formal reason marker on notices: noun plus につき meaning due to. Terse shop and office style; not casual conversation.

改装中につきしばらく休業します。

Closed for a while due to renovation.

雨天につき試合は延期です。

Match postponed due to rain.
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〜ため (reason)

Reason or purpose depending on context: plain or noun plus の plus ため. At N3, reason readings in formal writing are key; purpose uses often take volitional verbs.

体調不良のため欠席します。

I will be absent due to poor physical condition.

交通渋滞のため到着が遅れた。

Arrival was delayed because of traffic congestion.
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〜せいか

Tentative blame: perhaps because of. Softens せい with か; useful when the cause is suspected rather than proven.

寝不足のせいか、頭が重い。

Maybe from lack of sleep, my head feels heavy.

気温のせいか、体調を崩す人が多い。

Perhaps because of the temperature, many people feel unwell.
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〜ばかりでなく

Not only but also variant close to ばかりか. Plain or noun plus ばかりでなく; slightly softer escalation into the second item.

価格ばかりでなく品質も重要だ。

Not only price but quality is important too.

言葉ばかりでなく行動でも示すべきだ。

One should show it not only in words but in actions.
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〜につけ

Every time or whenever I encounter X—often an emotional reaction. Plain plus につけ; also 何かにつけ meaning at every opportunity.

その曲を聞くにつけ、留学時代を思い出す。

Whenever I hear that song, I recall my study-abroad days.

何かにつけ相談してくれる。

They consult me at every little opportunity.
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〜かいがある

Effort pays off: it is worth it, or there was point to. Stem or noun plus かいがある; antonym flavor with かいがなく. Also written 甲斐.

練習したかいがあって合格した。

The practice paid off and I passed.

待ったかいがなく、彼は来なかった。

Waiting was pointless—he never came.
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〜だけに

Precisely because X, Y follows with extra force: plain/noun + だけに. Highlights fitting consequence of a notable trait.

期待が大きかっただけに失望も大きい。

Precisely because expectations were high, the disappointment is also large.

経験者だけに説明が早い。

Precisely because they are experienced, the explanation is quick.
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〜だけのことはある

X lives up to its reputation / was worth it: plain + だけのことはある. Praises that effort or status shows in the result.

練習しただけのことはある、上達が早い。

The practice paid off—progress is fast.

一流だけのことはある技術だ。

It is skill worthy of a top-tier reputation.
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Contrast, concession & comparison

〜かわりに

Substitution or trade-off: instead of or in exchange for. Noun plus の or plain plus かわりに; covers replacement and reciprocal give-and-take.

電車のかわりに自転車で通っている。

I commute by bike instead of by train.

掃除を手伝ったかわりに夕食をごちそうになった。

In exchange for helping clean, I was treated to dinner.
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〜ながらも

Concession against an ongoing trait: even while. Stem or adjective plus ながらも; more literary than のに; often praise mixed with limitation.

狭いながらも快適な部屋だ。

Even though it is small, the room is comfortable.

初心者ながらも堂々と発表した。

Even as a beginner, they presented with confidence.
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〜つつ

Formal simultaneous or concessive while or even as. Stem plus つつ; written twin of ながら; つつも heightens concession in essays.

問題点を認識しつつ作業を進める。

We proceed with the work while recognizing the issues.

断りつつも内心では興味があった。

Even while declining, I was interested inside.
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〜にもかかわらず

Strong despite or notwithstanding. Plain or noun plus にもかかわらず; formal contrast between expectation and a contrary fact.

悪条件にもかかわらず成功した。

We succeeded despite bad conditions.

注意したにもかかわらず同じミスが出た。

The same mistake appeared despite the warning.
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〜くせに

Critical even though that scolds hypocrisy or mismatch. Plain plus くせに; emotionally charged—avoid in polite disagreement with superiors.

自信があるくせに準備不足だ。

For all their confidence, they are underprepared.

知っているくせに教えてくれない。

Even though they know, they will not tell me.
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〜のに (frustration)

Concessive のに at N3 often carries frustration: an expected outcome failed. Plain plus のに; emotional clash distinguishes it from milder uses.

早く出たのに電車に乗り遅れた。

I left early, yet I still missed the train.

約束したのに来なかった。

They promised, yet they did not come.
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〜一方だ

One-way ongoing change: keep worsening or improving. Plain plus 一方だ; typically unidirectional trends, often negative such as rising costs.

物価は上がる一方だ。

Prices just keep rising.

問い合わせは増える一方だ。

Inquiries keep increasing.
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〜に対して (contrast)

Contrastive whereas or in contrast to. Also toward a target—here focus on side-by-side comparison in explanations and essays.

都市部に対して地方は人口が少ない。

In contrast to urban areas, rural regions have fewer people.

兄が慎重なのに対して弟は大胆だ。

Whereas the older brother is cautious, the younger is bold.
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〜というより

Refines a description: rather than X, it is more Y. Phrase plus というより; soft correction of labels in conversation and writing.

怒っているというより悲しんでいる。

Rather than angry, they are sad.

仕事というより趣味に近い。

It is closer to a hobby than to work.
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〜といっても

Downplays a label: even though you say X, it is only. Quotation plus といっても; often followed by a modest reality check.

料理ができるといっても簡単なものだけだ。

Even though I say I can cook, it is only simple dishes.

近いといっても歩いて三十分はかかる。

Even saying it is close, it still takes thirty minutes on foot.
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〜にしては

Evaluates against expectation for a category: for being X. Noun or plain plus にしては; praise or mild surprise relative to the standard.

初心者にしては上手だ。

For a beginner, they are skilled.

値段にしては品質がいい。

For the price, the quality is good.
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〜どころではない

Situation leaves no room for X: far from, or in no position to. Noun or plain plus どころではない; rejects a lighter activity amid urgency.

忙しくて旅行どころではない。

I am so busy that a trip is out of the question.

痛いどころではなく、動けない。

It is not just painful—I cannot move.
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〜に反して

Contrary to expectation or rule: noun plus に反して. Formal; pairs with expectation, hope, intention, and regulations.

予想に反して結果は良好だった。

Contrary to expectations, the results were good.

指示に反して独自に進めた。

They proceeded on their own contrary to instructions.
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〜反面

Two-sided evaluation: on the other hand. Plain plus 反面; balances a merit with a drawback in the same subject.

便利な反面、依存しやすい。

It is convenient; on the other hand, it is easy to become dependent.

給料が高い反面、責任も重い。

Pay is high; on the flip side, responsibility is heavy.
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〜一方で

Parallel contrast: while or on the one hand. Plain plus 一方で; essays use it to hold two concurrent facts without a bare but.

売上は伸びる一方で、コストも増えている。

Sales are growing; meanwhile costs are rising too.

厳しく指導する一方で、相談にも乗る。

While coaching strictly, they also make time to advise.
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〜ものの

Written concession: although. Plain plus ものの; softer continuation often limits the force of the first clause.

挑戦したものの、うまくいかなかった。

I tried, although it did not go well.

説明を受けたものの、まだ不安だ。

I got an explanation, yet I still feel uneasy.
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〜とはいえ

Formal even so or that said. Quotation or nominal plus とはいえ; concedes a point then pivots—cousin of といっても with stiffer register.

初めてとはいえ、準備不足だった。

Even allowing it was their first time, preparation was lacking.

近いとはいえ、荷物があると大変だ。

Nearby though it is, it is tough with luggage.
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Time, aspect & sequence

〜うちに

Do something while a state lasts or before it changes: plain or ている plus うちに. Opportunity-window reading is central at N3.

熱いうちに食べてください。

Please eat it while it is hot.

若いうちにいろいろな経験をしたい。

I want varied experience while I am young.
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〜たびに

Repeated trigger: every time. Plain or noun plus の plus たびに; each occurrence brings the same reaction or change.

実家に帰るたびに料理をごちそうになる。

Every time I visit my family home, I am treated to a meal.

会議のたびに同じ議論が繰り返される。

The same debate repeats at every meeting.
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〜ごとに

Regular interval or per-unit marking: noun plus ごとに. Overlaps たびに but feels more systematic, as in every hour or each group.

一時間ごとに休憩を取る。

We take a break every hour.

クラスごとにテーマが違う。

Each class has a different theme.
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〜最中

Right in the middle of an activity: noun plus の or ている plus 最中. Interruption scenarios are typical and useful practice.

食事の最中に電話がかかってきた。

A call came right in the middle of the meal.

発表している最中に画面が止まった。

The screen froze while I was presenting.
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〜たとたん

Immediate sequence: the instant I. Ta-form plus とたん; following event is sudden and often unexpected—speaker discovery vibe.

ドアを開けたとたん、猫が飛び出した。

The moment I opened the door, the cat bolted out.

席に着いたとたん、名前を呼ばれた。

The instant I sat down, my name was called.
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〜次第

As soon as X is done, Y: stem plus 次第. Polite scheduling language; distinct from 次第だ meaning depends.

到着し次第、連絡します。

I will contact you as soon as I arrive.

確認でき次第、発送手続きに入ります。

As soon as we can confirm, we will start shipping.
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〜てからでないと

Negative prerequisite on sequence: not until after. Te-form plus からでないと plus negative potential or decision; blocks premature action.

契約書を確認してからでないとサインできない。

I cannot sign until after I have checked the contract.

説明を聞いてからでないと判断できない。

I cannot judge until after hearing the explanation.
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〜ておく

Do something in advance or leave in a state for later: te-form plus おく. Preparation and intentional non-interference are core senses.

質問リストを作っておいた。

I prepared a question list ahead of time.

窓は開けておきましょう。

Let us leave the window open.
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〜てある

Resulting state from someone's purposeful action: transitive te-form plus ある with が. Focuses on readiness, not the actor.

会議室に資料が置いてある。

Materials have been placed in the meeting room.

予約が取ってあります。

A reservation has been made.
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〜っぱなし

Left continuously in a state, often careless: stem plus っぱなし. Negative evaluation is common with lights left on or items unreturned.

エアコンを付けっぱなしにしないで。

Do not leave the air conditioner running.

本を借りっぱなしにしている。

I have left borrowed books unreturned.
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〜かける

Inceptive or incomplete: stem plus かける meaning start to or almost. Marks unfinished starts or near-misses in action.

手紙を書きかけたが、やめにした。

I started writing a letter but stopped.

言いかけて、やめた。

I was about to say it, then stopped.
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〜つつある

Formal progressive change: stem plus つつある meaning be in the process of. Written and news style for gradual transitions.

状況は改善しつつある。

The situation is gradually improving.

伝統が失われつつある。

Traditions are in the process of being lost.
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〜まま

Unchanged state continues: plain or noun plus の plus まま. Often leftover condition contrary to expectation.

窓を開けたまま外出した。

I went out leaving the window open.

座ったまま挨拶した。

I greeted them while remaining seated.
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〜通り

Accordance: as or just like. Noun plus の or plain plus 通り; follows instructions, expectations, or prior statements.

マニュアルの通りに組み立てた。

I assembled it according to the manual.

予想通りの結果になった。

The result was just as expected.
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〜たて

Freshly completed: stem plus たて meaning just made or done. Warm, sensory nuance with baked goods and newborn states.

焼きたてのパンが香ばしい。

Freshly baked bread smells wonderful.

生まれたての子猫は目が開いていない。

Newborn kittens have not opened their eyes.
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〜ずに

Without doing: nai-stem plus ずに (する becomes せずに). Formal or written twin of ないで; links manner or omitted action.

辞書を使わずに読んでみた。

I tried reading without using a dictionary.

何も言わずに席を立った。

They left their seat without saying anything.
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〜たばかり

Immediate completion: ta-form plus ばかり meaning have just. Subjective recency—may not be objectively recent.

食べたばかりなのに、もうおなかが空いた。

I just ate, yet I am already hungry.

着いたばかりで、まだ荷物も開けていない。

I just arrived and have not even opened my luggage.
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〜ところだ

Aspect snapshot: dictionary plus ところだ for about to, ているところだ for in the middle, たところだ for just did. Timing relative to now is the lesson.

これから出かけるところだ。

I am just about to go out.

今ちょうど説明しているところです。

I am right in the middle of explaining now.
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〜か〜ないかのうちに

Almost the instant X happens: dictionary + か + nai + かのうちに. Near-simultaneous succession; spoken storytelling.

着くか着かないかのうちに電話が鳴った。

Almost the moment I arrived, the phone rang.

ドアを開けるか開けないかのうちに猫が出た。

Almost as I opened the door, the cat darted out.
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〜かと思ったら

Just when I thought X, (unexpected Y): plain + かと思ったら. Surprise pivot in narrative.

静かになったかと思ったらまた騒ぎ出した。

Just when I thought it had quieted, the noise started again.

終わったかと思ったら追加課題が出た。

Just when I thought it was over, extra work appeared.
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〜そばから

As soon as X, (it undoes / repeats): dictionary/ta + そばから. Frustrated immediacy—often negative redo.

教えたそばから忘れてしまう。

As soon as I teach it, they forget.

片付たそばから子供が散らかす。

As soon as it is tidied, the child messes it up.
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Limits, extent & viewpoint

〜に限る

Two readings: nothing beats as evaluation, and limited to as restriction. Noun plus に限る; disambiguate with surrounding words like period or target.

疲れているときは寝るに限る。

When you are tired, nothing beats sleeping.

割引は会員に限ります。

The discount is limited to members.
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〜限り

As long as or to the extent that: plain plus 限り. Also ない限り meaning unless; scope and condition readings dominate N3.

プロである限り、練習を怠れない。

As long as you are a pro, you cannot neglect practice.

禁止されない限り、撮影してよい。

Unless it is prohibited, photographing is fine.
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〜ばかり (only)

Limitation nothing but: noun plus ばかり. Can sound complaining when listing unwanted repetition such as complaints only.

甘いものばかり食べている。

I am eating nothing but sweets.

最近は失敗ばかりだ。

Lately it has been nothing but failures.
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〜にすぎない

Downplays degree: nothing more than. Noun or plain plus にすぎない; humble or dismissive minimization in explanations.

それは一例にすぎない。

That is nothing more than one example.

私は手伝ったにすぎない。

I merely helped—that is all.
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〜にほかならない

Emphatic identification: nothing other than. Noun plus にほかならない; formal assertion of true nature or cause.

成功は努力の結果にほかならない。

Success is nothing other than the result of effort.

それは信頼の表れにほかならない。

That is nothing other than a sign of trust.
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〜とは限らない

Blocks overgeneralization: not necessarily. Plain or noun phrase plus とは限らない; useful hedge after rules of thumb.

高い店がうまいとは限らない。

An expensive restaurant is not necessarily good.

経験者が正しいとは限らない。

Experienced people are not always right.
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〜にわたって

Span coverage: over or across a range. Noun of extent plus にわたって; time spans and geographic ranges in formal reports.

三日間にわたって研修が行われた。

Training was held over three days.

全国にわたって被害が広がった。

Damage spread across the whole country.
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〜にかけて

From A through B in time or place, or when it comes to a skill. AからBにかけて or Nにかけて; two senses share the form.

今夜から明朝にかけて雨になる。

Rain from tonight through tomorrow morning.

デザインにかけて彼の右に出る者はいない。

When it comes to design, no one surpasses him.
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〜に沿って

Along a line or in line with a policy: noun plus に沿って. Physical paths and abstract compliance both appear.

川に沿って歩くと気持ちいい。

Walking along the river feels good.

方針に沿って計画を立てる。

We plan in line with the policy.
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〜をめぐって

Debate or conflict around a topic: noun plus をめぐって. News style for disputes, negotiations, and controversies.

遺産をめぐって家族が対立している。

The family is in conflict over the inheritance.

新ルールをめぐって議論が続いている。

Debate continues surrounding the new rules.
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〜を通して

Through a medium or over a period: noun plus を通して. Experience, people, and time-as-channel readings.

友人を通して紹介してもらった。

I was introduced through a friend.

一年を通して気候が安定している。

The climate is stable throughout the year.
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〜を通じて

Near-synonym of を通して: via or throughout. Noun plus を通じて; slightly more formal in some collocations such as via the internet.

SNSを通じて情報が広がる。

Information spreads via social media.

四季を通じて観光客が訪れる。

Tourists visit throughout the four seasons.
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〜をはじめ

Representative listing: starting with X and others. Noun plus をはじめ; X is the salient example of a larger set.

東京をはじめ大都市でイベントがある。

There are events in major cities, starting with Tokyo.

校長をはじめ先生方が出席した。

Teachers attended, beginning with the principal.
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〜を中心に

Centered on X: noun plus を中心に or を中心として. Spatial, organizational, or thematic cores.

駅を中心に街が発展した。

The town developed centered on the station.

環境問題を中心に議論した。

We discussed with environmental issues at the center.
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〜を皮切りに

Opening move of a series: starting with X then continuing. Noun plus を皮切りに; events, releases, and tours.

大阪公演を皮切りに全国を回る。

Starting with the Osaka show, they tour nationwide.

一号店を皮切りに店舗を増やした。

Beginning with the first shop, they increased locations.
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〜に及ぶ

Extent reaches a scale: extend to or amount to. Noun plus に及ぶ; damage, numbers, and topics in formal description.

被害は広範囲に及んだ。

The damage extended over a wide area.

議論は細部にまで及んだ。

The discussion even extended to fine details.
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〜に関わる

Involvement or stakes: relate to or affect. Noun plus に関わる; often serious domains such as matters of safety or life.

安全に関わる問題は後回しにできない。

Issues involving safety cannot be postponed.

プライバシーに関わる情報は慎重に扱う。

Handle information related to privacy carefully.
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〜をもとに

Using X as material or base: noun plus をもとに. Creative or analytical work grounded in sources.

実話をもとに小説を書いた。

I wrote a novel based on a true story.

アンケートをもとに改善点を洗い出した。

We listed improvements based on the survey.
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〜を問わず

Regardless of X: noun + を問わず. Formal openness across categories (age, experience, weather).

経験を問わず応募できる。

You can apply regardless of experience.

天候を問わず試合は行う。

The match will be held regardless of weather.
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Appearance, hearsay & soft judgment

〜がち

Tendency toward an undesirable state: stem or noun plus がち. Soft criticism of frequency such as often late or often ill.

冬は体調を崩しがちだ。

In winter I tend to get run-down.

忙しい時期は連絡を忘れがちになる。

In busy periods I tend to forget to keep in touch.
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〜っぽい

Ish or tends to: noun or stem plus っぽい. Casual color, material, or personality vibes such as childish or forgetful.

その説明はいい加減っぽい。

That explanation sounds kinda sloppy.

忘れっぽいのでメモ必須だ。

I am forgetful, so notes are essential.
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〜気味

A slight touch of a condition: noun or stem plus 気味. Mild self-report such as a bit of a cold; softer than a full diagnosis.

今日は風邪気味なので早く帰ります。

I feel a bit of a cold coming on, so I will leave early.

納期前はみんな焦り気味だ。

Before deadlines everyone seems a bit on edge.
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〜げ

Seeming emotion shown outwardly: stem of adjective or verb plus げ. Literary or observational; not as casual as そう.

彼女は不満げな顔をしていた。

She wore a look of dissatisfaction.

子供が自慢げに作品を見せた。

The child proudly showed the work.
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〜そうにない

Negative appearance: does not look like it will. Stem plus そうにない; blocks optimistic appearance readings of そうだ.

今日中に終わりそうにない。

It does not look like it will finish today.

彼は誘いを受けそうにない。

He does not look likely to accept the invitation.
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〜みたいだ

Casual resemblance or conjecture: noun or plain plus みたいだ. Spoken twin of ようだ; avoid in very formal writing.

子供みたいな発想だ。

That is a childlike idea.

もう春みたいにあたたかい。

It is warm like spring already.
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〜ようだ (inference)

Sensory or inferential seems. Plain plus ようだ; also manner and example uses—N3 stresses evidence-based guess versus hearsay そうだ.

雨が降ったようだ、地面がぬれている。

It seems it rained—the ground is wet.

体調が悪いようだ、顔色がよくない。

They seem unwell; their complexion is not good.
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〜ということだ

Hearsay or paraphrase: I hear, or it means that. Plain plus ということだ; also definitional wrap-ups in explanations.

来週休業するということだ。

Apparently they will be closed next week.

つまり、延期だということだ。

In short, it means a postponement.
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〜とのことだ

Reported message: I was told that. Plain or noun plus だ plus とのことだ; business and message-relay flavor stronger than ということだ.

明日訪問するとのことです。

I am told they will visit tomorrow.

書類は届いているとのことだ。

Word is the documents have arrived.
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〜らしい (hearsay)

Hearsay or typicality: plain plus らしい. Distinguish I hear from typical of X; evidence is secondhand or stereotype-based.

来月人事異動があるらしい。

I hear there will be a personnel reshuffle next month.

彼らしい丁寧な返事だった。

It was a polite reply typical of him.
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〜傾向がある

Observed tendency: plain plus 傾向がある. Analytical tone for patterns in data, behavior, or society.

夜型の人は朝に弱い傾向がある。

Night owls tend to be weak in the morning.

若年層はキャッシュレスを好む傾向がある。

Younger groups tend to prefer cashless payment.
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〜かのように

As if in a counterfactual manner: plain plus かのように. Vivid simile for acting contrary to fact.

何もなかったかのように振る舞った。

They behaved as if nothing had happened.

冬かのように寒い日だった。

It was a day cold as if it were winter.
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〜そうだ (hearsay)

Secondhand report: plain plus そうだ. Distinct from stem plus そうだ appearance; N3 requires firm separation of the two formations.

台風が近づいているそうだ。

They say a typhoon is approaching.

あの店は閉業したそうだ。

I hear that shop has closed down.
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〜と思われる

Soft judgment: it seems or one would think. Plain plus と思われる; formal hedge common in essays and reports.

この案が妥当だと思われる。

This proposal seems appropriate.

原因は別にあると思われる。

The cause seems to lie elsewhere.
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〜気配がある

Sense of an approaching change: noun plus の or plain plus 気配がある. Atmospheric, often weather or mood detection.

春の気配が感じられる。

You can sense a hint of spring.

嵐の気配があるので早めに帰る。

There is a hint of a storm, so I will head home early.
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Nominal patterns & decisions

〜ことになる

External decision or natural outcome: plain plus ことになる. Plans decided for you; contrast with speaker-led ことにする.

来月から部署が変わることになった。

It has been decided my department changes from next month.

試合は延期になることになった。

It turned out the match will be postponed.
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〜ことにする

Speaker decision: plain plus ことにする. Deliberate choice; past ことにした reports a resolution already made.

毎朝ジョギングすることにした。

I have decided to jog every morning.

今回は応募しないことにします。

I will decide not to apply this time.
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〜ようにする

Make an effort or arrange so that: plain plus ようにする. Habit-forming intent and ensuring measures.

毎日野菜を食べるようにしている。

I make it a point to eat vegetables every day.

音を出さないようにしてください。

Please try not to make noise.
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〜ようになる

Change of ability or habit: plain plus ようになる. Marks becoming able or starting to do or not do something over time.

漢字が読めるようになった。

I have become able to read kanji.

最近、早起きするようになった。

Lately I have started getting up early.
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〜というものだ

Defines the essence: that is what you call. Phrase plus というものだ; evaluative wrap that states what something truly amounts to.

助け合うのが友情というものだ。

Helping each other is what friendship is.

期限を守るのが社会人というものだ。

Keeping deadlines is what being a working adult means.
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〜というのは

Topic gloss: what is meant by X is. Xというのは for definitions; also softens introducing terms.

余裕があるというのは時間だけの話ではない。

Having leeway is not only about time.

成功というのは一文では定義できない。

Success cannot be defined in a single sentence.
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〜ものがある

Speaker feels a notable quality: plain plus ものがある. Emotive evaluation that there is something striking about it.

彼の話には説得力があるものがある。

There is something persuasive about his talk.

この景色には心を打つものがある。

There is something moving about this scenery.
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〜ことになっている

Standing rule or arrangement: plain plus ことになっている. Schedules, customs, and decided systems still in force.

ここでは靴を脱ぐことになっている。

Here you are supposed to take off your shoes.

毎週月曜に報告することになっている。

We are set to report every Monday.
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〜つもりはない

Denies intention: plain plus つもりはない. Clears suspicion of motive; softer than a blunt will not.

責めるつもりはない。

I do not mean to blame you.

諦めるつもりはない。

I have no intention of giving up.
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〜次第だ

Dependence: it depends on. Noun plus 次第だ; also up to someone. Distinct from stem plus 次第 meaning as soon as.

成功するかどうかは準備次第だ。

Whether we succeed depends on preparation.

あとは本人の気持ち次第です。

The rest depends on how they feel.
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〜たことがある

Life experience: ta-form plus ことがある. N3 consolidates against habitual ることがある meaning sometimes.

富士山に登ったことがある。

I have climbed Mt. Fuji before.

その映画は見たことがない。

I have never seen that movie.
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〜ることがある

Occasional occurrence: dictionary form plus ことがある meaning there are times when. Habitual intermittence, not lifetime experience.

眠れないことがある。

There are times I cannot sleep.

電車で小説を読むことがある。

I sometimes read novels on the train.
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〜ところがある

Partial trait: there is a side that. Plain plus ところがある; soft character description without totalizing.

彼には頑固なところがある。

He has a stubborn side.

その案には魅力的なところがある。

That plan has an attractive side.
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〜ものか

Emphatic refusal: like hell I will. Plain plus ものか or もんか; strongly emotional negative resolve in speech.

二度と頼むものか。

I will never ask again.

負けるもんか。

There is no way I will lose.
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〜ということ

Nominalizes content as a fact or unit: plain plus ということ. Building block for definitions, reports, and ということだ.

彼が欠席するということを知らなかった。

I did not know that he would be absent.

重要なのは続けるということだ。

What matters is the fact of continuing.
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Passive, causative & receiving

〜させられる

Causative-passive: be made to do against preference. Learn formation differences and the adversity nuance typical of unwanted imposition.

残業をさせられた。

I was made to work overtime.

子供のころ、野菜を食べさせられた。

As a child I was made to eat vegetables.
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〜てもらう

Receive a favor as action: te-form plus もらう. Beneficiary is the subject; に marks the helper. Core receiving voice at N3.

先輩に書類を確認してもらった。

I had a senior check the documents for me.

道を教えてもらった。

I had someone show me the way.
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〜させていただく

Humble I will do framed as receiving permission: causative stem plus ていただく. Business keigo; overuse can sound stiff or hollow.

説明させていただきます。

Allow me to explain.

本日は欠席させていただきます。

I will humbly excuse myself from attending today.
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〜ていただく

Humble receiving of someone's action: te-form plus いただく. Politer than てもらう; thanking and requests in formal speech.

ご意見を聞かせていただきたいです。

I would like you to share your opinion with us.

資料を送っていただきました。

You kindly sent me the materials.
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〜てくださる

Respectful giving of action to the in-group: te-form plus くださる. Honors the benefactor's action toward the speaker's side.

先生が推薦状を書いてくださった。

The teacher kindly wrote a recommendation for me.

詳しく説明してくださいました。

They kindly explained in detail.
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使役

Causative: make or let someone do. Formation and particle choice for force versus permission are the N3 focus beyond basic recognition.

子供に宿題をやらせた。

I made the child do homework.

好きなだけ休ませてあげた。

I let them rest as much as they liked.
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受身

Direct and adversity passives: focus shifts to the affected party. N3 expands suffering passive and polite indirectness in reports.

隣の人に足を踏まれた。

My foot was stepped on by the person next to me.

会議で名前を呼ばれて驚いた。

I was surprised when my name was called in the meeting.
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〜てもらえる

Potential of receiving: can get someone to. Te plus もらえる; soft requests and ability to obtain help in daily negotiation.

明日来てもらえますか。

Could you come tomorrow for me?

もう少し待ってもらえると助かります。

It would help if you could wait a bit more.
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〜てほしい

Want someone to do: te-form plus ほしい. Speaker desire directed at another's action; particle に for the agent.

もう少し静かにしてほしい。

I want you to be a bit quieter.

正直に話してほしい。

I want you to speak honestly.
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〜させてほしい

Want permission to do: causative plus てほしい. Asks to be allowed; softer than blunt want-to when seeking leave.

自分で決めさせてほしい。

I want you to let me decide myself.

一言あいさつさせてほしい。

Please let me say a brief greeting.
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〜てあげる

Give action as favor outward: te plus あげる. Watch condescension risk toward equals or superiors in real interaction.

妹に宿題を教えてあげた。

I taught my little sister her homework.

荷物を持ってあげましょうか。

Shall I carry your bag for you?
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Formal connectives & topic framing

〜について

About or concerning a topic: noun plus について. Default spoken and written topic marker; less formal than に関して.

旅行の計画について話し合った。

We talked about the travel plans.

この点について意見をください。

Please give your opinion on this point.
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〜に関して

Regarding in formal register: noun plus に関して or に関する plus noun. Business and academic topic framing.

契約条件に関して確認したい。

I would like to confirm regarding the contract terms.

安全に関する規則を守る。

Follow rules related to safety.
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〜によって (means)

Means or depending-on: noun plus によって. Agent in passives, method, or variation across cases—polysemy is the teaching point.

話し合いによって解決した。

It was resolved through discussion.

季節によって景色が変わる。

The scenery changes depending on the season.
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〜によると

Source of information: noun plus によると. Leads into hearsay or reported facts such as according to the forecast.

天気予報によると明日は晴れる。

According to the forecast, tomorrow will be clear.

報道によると事故の原因が判明した。

According to reports, the cause of the accident is known.
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〜によれば

Near-synonym of によると: according to. Noun plus によれば; slightly more written variants appear in news.

彼の説明によれば問題は解決済みだ。

According to his explanation, the issue is already solved.

統計によれば利用者は増えている。

According to statistics, users are increasing.
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〜として

In the capacity of or as: noun plus として. Roles, statuses, and framing identities in explanations.

友人として忠告する。

I advise you as a friend.

資料として保存しておく。

I will keep it as reference material.
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〜において

Formal locus in or at. Noun plus において or における plus noun; meetings, fields, and eras in written Japanese.

会議において方針が決まった。

The policy was decided at the meeting.

教育において重要な課題だ。

It is an important issue in education.
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〜にあたって

At the important occasion of: noun or plain plus にあたって. Speeches and ceremonious starts.

開会にあたってご挨拶します。

I will offer greetings at the opening.

留学にあたって準備を重ねた。

I made thorough preparations upon studying abroad.
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〜に際して

At the time of in formal documents: noun plus に際して. Similar to にあたって; announcements prefer it.

契約に際して注意事項を確認した。

We checked the cautions at the time of contracting.

退職に際して挨拶回りをした。

Upon retiring, I made farewell rounds.
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〜にしたがって

In accordance with or as X progresses: noun or plain plus にしたがって. Rules compliance and proportional change.

指示にしたがって行動してください。

Please act in accordance with the instructions.

成長するにしたがって責任が増える。

As one grows, responsibility increases.
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〜につれて

As X changes, Y changes: plain or noun plus につれて. Gradual correlated change; less rule-following than にしたがって.

会議が進むにつれて意見が分かれた。

As the meeting progressed, opinions diverged.

年を取るにつれて体力が落ちる。

As one ages, physical strength declines.
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〜に伴って

Along with a change, another occurs: noun or plain plus に伴って. Formal twin of correlated change; news and reports favor it.

都市化に伴って交通問題が増えた。

Along with urbanization, traffic problems increased.

気温の上昇に伴って需要も伸びた。

Demand grew along with the rise in temperature.
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〜に応じて

According to or in proportion to: noun plus に応じて. Flexible response matching conditions, ability, or request.

能力に応じて仕事を分ける。

We divide work according to ability.

状況に応じて計画を調整する。

We adjust the plan according to the situation.
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〜に基づいて

Based on: noun plus に基づいて. Evidence, rules, and data as foundations for action or judgment.

事実に基づいて判断する。

Judge based on facts.

契約に基づいて支払いを行う。

Payment is made based on the contract.
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〜にとって

From someone's viewpoint: noun plus にとって. Evaluates importance, difficulty, or value for a person or group.

私にとって家族が一番大切だ。

For me, family is the most important.

初心者にとってこの教材は難しい。

For beginners, this material is difficult.
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〜に対して (target)

Toward a person, attitude, or object of response: noun plus に対して. Distinct from contrast reading taught elsewhere.

質問に対して丁寧に答えた。

I answered the question politely.

顧客に対して誠実であるべきだ。

One should be sincere toward customers.
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〜をはじめとして

Starting with X (as representative): noun + をはじめとして. Formal listing opener; essays and speeches.

東京をはじめとして大都市で導入された。

It was introduced in major cities, starting with Tokyo.

英語をはじめとして複数言語に対応する。

It supports multiple languages, starting with English.
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〜に基づく

Be based on (attributive/predicative): noun + に基づく. Cousin of に基づいて used as a modifier or predicate.

データに基づく判断が必要だ。

A judgment based on data is necessary.

この方針は調査に基づく。

This policy is based on the survey.
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Compound particles & scope

〜さえ

Even X / if only X: noun plus さえ. Extreme inclusion or minimal condition; pairs often with negatives or ば.

名前さえ覚えていない。

I do not even remember the name.

挨拶さえできない状態だった。

I was in no state to even greet anyone.
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〜すら

Even more literary even: noun plus すら. Stronger written flavor than さえ in many essay contexts.

彼は自分のミスすら認めない。

He will not even admit his own mistake.

水すら飲めないほど疲れていた。

I was so tired I could not even drink water.
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〜のみ

Only in formal register: noun plus のみ. Written twin of だけ; notices and academic prose.

関係者のみ入場できます。

Only related persons may enter.

現金のみ受け付けます。

We accept cash only.
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〜までも

Goes so far as / even to the extent of: noun or plain plus までも. Escalates scope, often with surprising extremes.

冗談までも本気にされて困った。

Even jokes were taken seriously, which troubled me.

命までも懸ける覚悟だ。

I am prepared to risk even my life.
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〜くらいなら

Rather than X, better Y: plain plus くらいなら. Prefers an alternative over an undesirable option.

諦めるくらいなら挑戦したい。

Rather than give up, I want to try.

文句を言うくらいなら手伝ってほしい。

Rather than complain, I want you to help.
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〜に値する

Be worth / deserve: noun or plain plus に値する. Formal evaluation of merit or worthiness.

信頼に値する人物だ。

They are a person worthy of trust.

一読に値する記事だった。

It was an article worth reading.
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〜につながる

Lead to / connect to: noun plus につながる. Causal pathway toward a result, often in analysis.

小さなミスが事故につながる。

A small mistake can lead to an accident.

継続が自信につながる。

Continuing leads to confidence.
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〜に代わって

On behalf of / in place of: noun plus に代わって. Substitution of agent in formal or polite contexts.

部長に代わって挨拶します。

I will greet you on behalf of the manager.

本人に代わって書類を提出した。

I submitted the documents in place of the person themself.
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〜うる

Formal potential can: stem plus うる or 得る. Abstract possibility in writing; pairs with えない.

考えうる対策を列挙した。

We listed every conceivable countermeasure.

起こりうるリスクを想定する。

We assume risks that can occur.
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〜だらけ

Covered with / full of undesirable X: noun plus だらけ. Negative clutter or abundance nuance.

部屋が荷物だらけだ。

The room is full of luggage.

ミスだらけの報告書だった。

It was a report full of mistakes.
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〜かいがなく

Effort wasted: stem or noun plus かいがなく. Opposite flavor of かいがある; regret that trying did not pay.

待ったかいがなく、公演は中止だった。

Waiting was wasted—the performance was cancelled.

練習の甲斐もなく負けた。

We lost with no payoff for the practice.
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〜をもって

With or by means of in formal closing or instrument: noun plus をもって. Ceremony, notices, and stiff prose.

これをもって本日の会議を終了します。

With this, we conclude today's meeting.

書面をもって通知する。

Notify by means of a written document.
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〜きり

Only that / left in a state since: noun or ta-form plus きり. Lonely leftover state or exclusive count.

二人きりで話した。

We talked just the two of us.

朝出かけたきり、連絡がない。

They went out in the morning and there has been no contact since.
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Speech style & discourse markers

〜といえば

Speaking of / if you mention: noun or clause plus といえば. Topic pivot that recalls associated information.

旅行といえば、来月北海道だ。

Speaking of travel, it is Hokkaido next month.

夏といえば花火大会を思い出す。

If you say summer, I recall fireworks festivals.
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〜だからといって

Just because X, it does not follow that Y: plain plus だからといって plus negative. Blocks unjustified conclusions.

高いからといって品質が良いとは限らない。

Just because it is expensive does not mean the quality is good.

若いからといって軽く見てはいけない。

Just because they are young, you must not look down on them.
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ところで

By the way topic shift: sentence-initial ところで. Soft discourse marker to change subject in conversation.

ところで、週末の予定は?

By the way, what are your weekend plans?

ところで、資料は届きましたか。

By the way, did the materials arrive?
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それにしても

Even so / at any rate: それにしても. Reacts with mild surprise after acknowledging prior information.

それにしても今日は寒いね。

Even so, it is cold today.

それにしても返事が遅い。

Even allowing for that, the reply is slow.
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ちなみに

Incidentally / as an aside: ちなみに. Adds related trivia without claiming it is central.

ちなみに、締切は金曜です。

Incidentally, the deadline is Friday.

ちなみに私は未経験です。

For reference, I have no prior experience.
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いずれにしても

In any case / either way: いずれにしても. Closes options and moves to a shared next step.

いずれにしても明日決めよう。

In any case, let us decide tomorrow.

いずれにしても準備は必要だ。

Either way, preparation is necessary.
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〜といったら

Emotive when it comes to X: noun plus といったら. Often amazement or strong evaluation follows.

その景色といったら、言葉にならない。

That scenery—words cannot capture it.

忙しさといったら、食事も忘れるほどだ。

The busyness—enough to forget meals.
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〜といったところだ

Roughly amounts to: phrase plus といったところだ. Soft estimate or modest summary of scale.

参加者は五十人といったところだ。

Participants amount to about fifty.

出来は合格点といったところだ。

The quality is roughly a passing mark.
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〜ものだから

Explanatory because with soft excuse flavor: plain plus ものだから. Speaks defensively or apologetically.

道が混んでいたものだから遅れた。

I was late because the roads were crowded.

初めてなものだから緊張している。

I am nervous because it is my first time.
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〜ことだから

Knowing how X is: noun plus のことだから. Predicts behavior from character; often warm or wry.

彼のことだから、もう準備しているだろう。

Knowing him, he has probably already prepared.

慎重な彼女のことだから、確認するはずだ。

Knowing careful her, she should check.
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〜というわけだ

So that is the story / that explains the situation: plain plus というわけだ. Discourse wrap that packages a conclusion.

そういうわけで、今日はここまでです。

So that is the story—that is all for today.

予算不足というわけで縮小した。

Budget shortage is why we scaled down.
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まして

Still more / let alone: まして. Escalates from a stronger case to an even clearer one.

専門家でも難しい。まして素人には無理だ。

Even experts find it hard. Still more, amateurs cannot manage.

昼間でも暗い。まして夜は何も見えない。

It is dark even by day. Let alone at night, you see nothing.
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たとえ〜ても

Even if hypothetically: たとえ plus ても. Emphasizes concession regardless of imagined degree.

たとえ雨でも行く。

Even if it rains, I will go.

たとえ反対されても続けたい。

Even if opposed, I want to continue.
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